ICT †Business Use Essay

About the Business I’ll use ‘Ki for hair’ as a basis of my project. This is a hairdressing salon in Camden Town, where Myra Ferreira keeps her own business. She is the manager of the salon, although there are two more workers (hairdressers). I worked there last summer (2002) and I know how they manage their entire budget on paper base. She started with a small business two years ago and still keeps all her income and expenses manually. Every hairdresser has a minimum of three clients per day usually, which means about 270-300 clients per month. The situation now To keep all the paper work, safe and in order they need a separate room. It takes a day for two people to produce the monthly reports, which means they lose about 6 clients a day (12 clients every month). The monthly report itself is working out the income and expenses and therefore the profit and producing it clearly for every single month. Although it is going fine, the business is getting bigger and needs a system, which makes the budget more accessible, produces clear reports for the tax purposes and takes less time to be done. How the ICT can help Computers have many applications in the 21st century. Specific software such as databases and spreadsheets are designed to help, improve, speed up and reduce the workload of certain tasks. In order to help them I’ll use the ICT (Information Communication Technology) to create a system, which will work out the budget easily, will be more accessible and will take less place, as well as time to be managed. ICT develops every day and replaces more and more the manual work. As everything else it has its advantages: takes less space, time (one person will need about half an hour to do all the work, which means more clients and more income) and effort to be accessed. The disadvantages are that only people with certain skills can do the work. I’ll try to transfer this disadvantage into advantage for the users, as they will learn how to manage a computer system. The Solutions One of the solutions is using just a word processor for producing the information, and calculating the budget separately. That’s is going to work perfectly fine, but will take much time. Other solution is to use just Microsoft Excel to work out the budget quicker, although it cannot present the literal data, as well as the numerated one. So my solution is to use Microsoft Excel for the ‘main job’, which is to work out the budget and then to transfer the data to Microsoft Word to produce the reports. I think this is the most efficient way of doing this project, because it will satisfy the needs of the potential users and I’ll prove it at the end. I chose Microsoft Excel because I believe tools such as macros, â€Å"what if† statements and pivot tables would ease the use of the system and will make it more understandable and user friendly. What are the user’s requirements? In order to consider the user’s requirements I did a questionnaire (see below): Questionnaire: 1.) What is wrong with the current system and why do you need a new computer-based system? 2.) What do you expect from the system? 3.) What IT skills do you think you have? (e.g. can you work with the operating system, do you know how to use Microsoft Office, etc.) 4.) What do you want the system to look like? I also asked the manager what her expectations were †¦ â€Å"As we are not familiar with ICT our main requirement is that the system should be user friendly and easy to follow. The only data that will have to be entered into the new system will be the assigned item number. When more than one of an item is required it will be entered twice, as this will be quicker. The rest of the information will be worked out by the system. Good luck!† Myra Ferreira Manager of Ki for Hair What do I expect from the system? The system must be easy to understand and use, so that any user with no computer knowledge could easily make use of the system. Much time will be saved as the computer will automatically set up the layout and the users will only have to input the required data. * First every user is going to have his/her own ID and password; * Once the user’s logged on, he/she is going to have access to the main directories, which are: the prices, the customer accounts and the monthly reports; * Every user will have the priority to edit information, excluding editing the prices; * The change (editing) of the prices can only be done by the manager; * The design of the system is going to match the colours of the salon. * To ease the use of the system I’ll use different tools such as macros (program that stores Microsoft Excel commands and eliminates the need of repeating series of calculations), pivot tables (allow you to easily sort and view data), â€Å"what if† statements (test cell contents and help you make decisions based upon them) and data filters (a method of sorting which hides information that does not match your criteria). * It must also be easy to update and edit, and most importantly easy to use. To make my project easier to read and understand, I’ll use different fonts and sizes as well as colours. In order to use the system as much as possible, the user’s system must include: Hardware requirements The hardware requirements must meet those set by Excel and Windows 95+ * IBM compatible PC * Pentium 100, K6-2 100 or above * 32Mb of RAM * 1GB Hard Drive space * Printer The above requirements or those required by both Excel and Windows 95 or above. The printer is required when a hard copy of the programs output is required. Software requirements * Windows 95/98/98SE/2000/XP * Microsoft Office (depends on the operating system, e.g. Microsoft Office 97/2000/XP) The system itself will be developed in MS Excel. Excel will also be required to run and use the system. The developer/user must have running a version of Microsoft Windows 95 or later. As Microsoft dominates the software market and MS-Excel will not run on other operating systems such as Linux, Unix, and Solaris etc. However in this case the system is aimed at the average user who will only be using a MS Windows environment. What skills and knowledge will be needed for the user to manage working with the system? * First, he/she will need to know how to work with the operating system * He/she should have basic knowledge of how to use Microsoft Office and particularly Microsoft Excel. * He/she should have basic thinking skills such as knowing how to learn and seeing things in the mind’s eye and personal qualities such as self-management and integrity To make my system work and be more efficient, I will: * Consider the user’s requirements very carefully, e.g. the layout, appearance, colour restrictions and the paper size, while I’m carrying out the design * Prepare a test strategy and test plan * Evaluate the final solution * Write user manuals on how to use the system I’d have created. Input, Process and Output Input-Process-Output. These are the basic functions of a computer. Data must be fed into the computer (input), which is then analysed and reorganised (process), and then it is displayed or printed (output). Input- it’s the data the user will be putting in, in my case the number of haircuts, blow-dries, etc. In order to make my system work more efficiently I’ll use data validation such as putting certain letters or numbers in certain cells. The process- it’s the processing of the initial data put by the user and done by the system. The output- this is the final result of the input and the process; in my case the output is going to be a hard copy of the monthly reports.

How working environment can impact on motivation Essay

(A) Describe, with examples, how working environment can impact on motivation and contribute to an effective workplace in travel and tourism, covering:- * Job location In travel and tourism, the holiday atmosphere at resort contributes to a sense of well-being. Customers are happy to be on holiday and it is relatively easy to have a positive attitude to work. Whereas if you were working in a call centre where you are office bound and have to spend most of the talking to customer on the telephone. The organisation has to consider how this poorer environment can be improved so that staff remains motivated. * Working conditions and Hours of work Hours of work vary tremendously throughout the industry- some people are happy to work unsocial hours because it fits in with their lifestyle or they wish to have time off when everyone else is working. However, the overall number of hours per week should not exceed 40. * Health and safety Safety and security factors must be considered in the workplace, and legislation such as the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 must be adhered to. Specific regulations also apply where food is served or where the chemical hazards, for example in a swimming pool. All these requirements are important. For some organisations a lapse in safety procedures can mean the collapse of the business and even a prosecution. Companies that organise activity holidays for children, for example must make health and safety a priority. Health and safety is important for both customers and employees. Employees need to know that they can go about their work in a safe environment and work together to ensure their customers are safe. * Equipment and Resources Sate-of-the-art equipment and a pleasant environment are important to motivate staff. * Social event Most companies have a Christmas party or social outgoing for staff. These are useful events to create camaraderie amongst staff and build teams. * Theories of motivation The motivation and commitment of employees is key to success of a team and therefore to the company. Several theorists have come up with models of motivation. The two of that we will look at are Maslow and Herzberg. 1. Maslow Abraham Maslow was an American who in the 1940’s developed a theory of motivation. The theory is valid still for understanding how people are motivated in the workplace. Employers can use it to provide conditions that fulfil people’s needs at the different levels. Maslow theory is displayed as a pyramid because employees can only move up the levels once the lower levels are fulfilled. So, an employee can’t achieve level 4 at work if they are having problems in their personal life or working with colleagues (level 3). Similarly, if they have just been made homeless (level 1) their concern will be finding shelter not performing at work. 2. Herzberg Herzberg’s theory is also known as the ‘hygiene’ theory. Herzberg identified characteristics which make people satisfied with their jobs and those which make them dissatisfied: ‘satisfiers’ and ‘dissatisfiers’. The satisfiers are factors which give people long-term motivation and enable them to enjoy their work: * The type of work * Promotion prospects * Having responsibilities * Sense of achievement * Personal development * Gaining recognition This dissatisfiers or hygiene factors need to be operating well in an organisation but according to Herzberg do not ultimately motivate people. These are: * Salary * Working conditions * Relationships with others- colleagues and managers * Company policy (B) Describe, with examples, how working relationships can impact on motivation and contribute to an effective workplace in travel and tourism, covering:- * Management style Management is about motivating people to act in certain ways so that the team can achieve its common goal. A good manager must inform, motivate and develop the team. The four types of manager/management I will be talking about are:- 1. An autocratic manager An autocratic manager makes all the decisions and announces them to the team. This person is the boss and so has full control. The main advantage of this kind of leadership is that decisions are made quickly, as no consultation is involved. Its other advantages include:- * Where there is a need for urgent action the autocrat will take control * Some team members gain security from being told what to do. Disadvantages include:- * Team members may become frustrated at their lack of control * There may not be room for the team to express creativity * There may be over-dependence on the leaders Autocratic management belongs in a traditional hierarchical structure. 2. Consultative management With consultative management, the leader still makes the decisions but discusses them with the team. The advantages include:- * The team is informed of what is going on * Open discussion is encouraged * The manager spends time with the team The disadvantages are that the team feel involved but frustrated by having no real power. 3. Democratic management With democratic management, the decision-making is shared among the team. The advantages include:- * Ideas are encouraged from everyone * There is greater involvement and commitment from team members * The team is likely to be supportive of the leader * The team is fully informed The disadvantages include:- * Some team members may not be able to cope with being involved in decision-making * The democratic process can take too long * The leader may not agree with the decisions of the team * Powerful team members may take over 4. Laissez-faire management With laissez-faire management the team is left to sort itself out and get on with its work. The manager does not get involved and therefore is not leading the team. The advantages include:- * Highly motivated and skilled people are able to get on with their tasks * The team is empowered The disadvantages include:- * New team members will be uninformed * The team may be left with little or no direction * Teamwork Teamwork skills are essential in the workplace. You must be able to work with other people in a team even if you don’t happen to like them. A team is a group of people who are working together to achieve common objectives. Even when you are not physically with other members of your team, you can work together by contributing to a sequence of activities with a common aim. If you were working as a resort representative in Spain, you would still be working in a team with colleagues in head office in the UK. 1. Team roles Good teams achieve synergy; that is, together they can achieve more than the members could individually. More ideas, energy and resources are generated as a group because:- * The team solves problems and makes decisions together * The team focuses on the priorities, with everyone working towards the same aim * The team provides a sense of belonging and a sense of status * The team provides a support network Not everyone in a team is the same- each person has their own strengths and weaknesses. If each person had the same weaknesses, the team could not work; there needs to be a balance of skills. A method of recognising individuals’ strengths and weaknesses is needed in order to build an effective team. The management expert R.Meredith Belbin has outlined nine team roles necessary for a successful team. One person can represent more than one role, as most people have strengths in more than one area. Belbin’s roles:- > Chairperson/ co-ordinator = The group leader, likely to be relaxed and extrovert, also likely to be a good communicator. They will build on the strengths of team members and give them encouragement. > Plant = The ideas person in the team, a person who is creative in looking for solution to problems, but not always good at details, and so may make careless mistakes. > Shaper = The task leader, who unites ideas and effort. Needs to be dominated and extrovert in order to make things happen. > Monitor/ evaluator = The team analyst, who is not so good at ideas but pays attention to details, thus keeping the team directed towards its target. > Implementer = The organiser of the team, who is able to make the ideas of the plant and shaper and turn them into manageable and realistic tasks. A practical, stable and disciplined person. > Resources investigator = The person who is outgoing and will explore and report on ideas and developments outside the group; is sociable and enthusiastic and good under pressure. > Team worker = A very people-oriented person, sensitive to others’ needs. The team worker has good communication skills and will be good at motivating other. A natural mediator, who will deal with any conflict within the team, this person is very good to have around in a crisis. > Finisher = A person who sticks to deadlines and likes to get on with things. Will probably be irritated by the more relaxed members of the team. > Specialist = This person is single-minded and a self-starter and provides knowledge and skills in specialist areas each of Belbin’s roles acquires a different level of important according to the objectives of the team and the stage in the team’s life. 2. team development Formal teams are part of the structure of an organisation and are planned in order to meet that organisation’s objectives. The formal team will follow rules and regulations and may meet on a pre-arranged schedule and complete administrative procedures. Examples in travel and tourism includes sales teams and marketing teams Informal teams work within or outside formal teams. They are sometimes based on personal relationships between members rather than on work roles. When you complete group work for assignments, you often choose the colleagues you wish. You choose to work with people you like and ones you know will be as committed as you are to the work. This is an informal team. There are several theories of team structure and development, which will help you to understand the effectiveness of teams. Bruce Tuckman (1965) identified four main stages of team development:- * Forming – at this stage, team members form their first impressions of each other and establish identities. They are sounding each other out and finding out what is expected of them. * Storming- the team members have, by now, become more used to each other. Members are prepared to put forward their ideas forcibly and openly; they are also prepared to disagree and so there may be some conflict and hostility. * Norming – the team now begins to establish co-operation. Conflict is controlled, views are exchanged and new standards introduced. * Performing – the team is now working together; it begins to arrive at solutions and achieve objectives. There can also be a fifth stage, called ‘adjourning’ or ‘mourning’, where the team has disbanded and the members miss being part of the team. * Job roles and lines of responsibility An organisation chart shows the structure of the company and how the work is divided into different areas. It also shows the lines of responsibility between staff, so that it is apparent who is responsible to whom. An employee studying a chart will find the possible promotions routes. The chart may show a hierarchical structure or line relationship. This is a very traditional structure and shows a chain of command with each person responsible to the person above them. It is sometimes referred to as a pyramid structure. Many organisations today would be depicted in a chart with a flatter structure. There are fewer layers of management, and each manager has a broader span of control. Restructuring of organisations often involves getting rid of middle managers, hence the flattened structure. * Channels of communication Open communication must be encouraged and ideas should be freely expressed in the workplace. There should be trust and support between team members. An effective leader can encourage good communication and shape the way the team works. * Verbal Verbal communication is the process of sending and receiving messages with words, including writing and there are different ways a person can do verbal communication 1. Telephone 2. Word of mouth 3. Video conference 4. Face to face 5. Presentation 6. Walkie-talkie 7. Meetings 8. Bluetooth/ headset (mobile phone) 9. Radio 10. Sign language * Written Written communication guarantees that everyone concerned has the same information and it provides a long-lasting record of communication for future such as 1. Books 2. Brochures/ leaflets, newspaper 3. E-mail 4. Text (written + electronic + verbal) 5. Fax (written + electronic) 6. Notice boards 7. Minutes of meetings * Electronic Electronic communication means any method used to convey a message that has been transmitted via electronic means such as e-mail, video conferencing, radio, TV, mobile phone, internet, fax etc. * Equal opportunities Legislation exists to ensure that personal receive equal opportunities and that there is no discrimination. The arts of parliament that you should be aware of are:- * Race relations Act 1976 This act makes discrimination on racial grounds unlawful in employment, training, education and the provision of goods, facilities and services. The two main type of discrimination involved in this Act are:- 1. direct discrimination:- discrimination against colour disability, citizenship 2. indirect discrimination:- discriminating a racial group * Sex discrimination Act 1975 This act makes it unlawful to discriminating against someone on the ground of gender, marital status, Gender reassignment or sexual orientation. The act was updated in 1986 to remove restrictions on women’s hours of work and then it allowed women to take h=jobs with flexible hours. This act not only covers discriminations in the workplace but in job advertisements and interviews. * Disability discrimination act 1995 This act makes discrimination against people with disabilities unlawful in respect of employment, education and access to goods, facilities, services, and premises. Employers are required to make reasonable adjustments to accommodate people with disabilities. Examples include providing specially adapted keyboards for arthritis sufferers, facilitating wheelchair access and relocating people with limited mobility to the ground floor. * Equal pay act 1970 This act was introduced to address the problem of women being paid less than men for the same work. It allows employees to claim equal value in terms of demands made on them, such as effort, skills and decisions made. There is also an EU Directive that state that for the same work or work of equal value, sex discrimination must be eliminated in all aspects of pay. * Other forms of discrimination Discrimination at work is a very serious issue and can result in large amounts of compensation being awarded following successful tribunals, not to set up policies to ensure that the workplace is free from discrimination. Measures to be taken include:- 1. Setting up a comprehensive equal opportunities policy covering all aspects of discrimination 2. Training staff in discrimination legislation and on how to implement the equal opportunities policy 3. Setting up complaints procedures for instances of discrimination * Employment rights act 1996 When someone gets a job they can aspect to receive a contract of employment. This is a legally binding agreement between the employer and the employee. Under the Employment Rights Act, the employer must give the employee a written document including the following information, in writing within 2 months of starting work:- 1. Name of employer and employee 2. Date employment began 3. Rate of pay and interval of pay 4. Hours of work 5. Holiday entitlement and pay 6. Job title and brief description of duties 7. Place of work 8. Notice entitlement and requirements 9. Sick leave entitlement and sick pay 10. Pension and pension scheme 11. Disciplinary procedures and grievance producers 12. Date of end of employment it fixed term 13. Additional details about working aboard if appropriate. * Notice board After one month of continues employment an employee is entitle to one week of notice if the employment ends. After 2 years’ employment they are entitle to 2 weeks’ notice, after 3 years, 3 weeks’ notice and so on. After 12 years the legal maximum 12 weeks’ notice is reached. A employee must also give notice of leaving to an employer. After one month of continuous employment, an employee must give a minimum of one week’s notice. Employees are entitled to normal pay during notice periods as long as they are working or available for work. * Redundancy Redundancy pay is calculated according to the employee’s age, length of service and salary. Employees can claim for unfair dismissal if they suspect: 1. There is no real redundancy 2. They were unfairly selected for redundancy Dismissal is treated as redundancy if the whole business is closing or a particular job disappears or requires fewer employees. An employer may offer alternative employment. If the employee unreasonably refuses it they are not entitled to redundancy pay. * EU Directives on hours and pay The European Working Time Directive was enacted in the UK through the Working Time Regulations 1998. This lays down the following: 1. A maximum 48-hours week, averaged over 17 weeks 2. at least 4 weeks’ paid annual leave 3. a weekly rest period of at least 24 hours in each 7-day period 4. a daily rest period of at least 11 consecutive hours between each working day 5. an in-work rest break of 20 minutes for those working hours or more per day Some sectors are excluded from the regulations; one of theses is transport. * National Minimum Wage Act 1998 This Act provides workers with a minimum hourly rate below which their wages will not fall. Those who work part time benefit most, because they are often badly paid. The Low Pay Commission advises the Secretary of State on the value of the minimum rate. A special lower rate applies to 18-to 21years-olds. * Maternity and paternity leave The Employment Relations Act 1999 provides for basic rights for maternity leave. There are three periods of maternity leave. Ordinary maternity leave is for a period of 18 weeks which coincides with the period for statutory maternity pay. This applies to all employees. Compulsory maternity leave extends to a period of 2 weeks after the birth; the employer must not permit the woman to return to work during this period. Additional maternity leave follows immediately after the original 18-weekperiod and must end within 29 weeks of the birth. Employees with at least one year’s service with an employer are eligible for the additional maternity leave. Under the same Act there are provisions to allow parents 3 months’ leave in order to care for a child. This is intended to be taken before the child is five. It is intended to be available to men and to women, in addition to maternity leave. Paternity leave is available to men to: 1. Have or expect to have responsibility for the child’s upbringing 2. Are the biological father of the child, or the mother’s husband or partner 3. Have worked continuously for their employer for 26 weeks ending with the fifteenth week before the baby is due. Eligible employees can choose take either 1 week or 2 consecutive weeks’ paternity leave (not odd days) * Statutory sickness pay An employer must pay Statutory Sick Pay to employees who become sick and who normally earn at least à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½79 per week. After 28 weeks, Incapacity Benefit or Income Support must be claimed instead. * Grievance and disciplinary procedures These must be included in the employee’s written statement or contract, or at least there must be a reference to where they can be found. Disciplinary producers deal with such maters as warnings to be given before dismissal. Warnings might arise from the following:- 1. Lack of capability or qualifications-although the employer has a responsibility to give training 2. Misconduct-which includes habitual lateness 3. Gross misconduct (for example, assault or theft) leads to instant or summary dismissal. Grievance procedures deal with complaints by employees who are not satisfied with aspects of their employment. Employees must be given the name of a person to whom a complaint can b made and should be informed of right of appeal. * Investors in people Investors in people is a UK quality standard development in 1990. Those companies who gain the award have proved that they invest in the training and development of their staff. This is beneficial to employees and also to customers and suppliers. The standard for Investors in people is based on four key principals: 1. Commitment from the top to develop all employees 2. Regular review of training and development needs 3. Taking relevant action to meet those needs throughout people’s careers 4. Evaluating training and development outcomes for individuals and the organisation in order to continuously improve These principals are subdivided into 24 indicators of effective practise, and the organisation provides evidence for assessment against the indicators. Once the organisation gets the award it is entitled to display the Investors in People logo on company literature. * ‘Buddies’ and mentoring Mentoring schemes are growing in popularity. They offer employees a one-to one relationship with a mentor, someone with greater experience and a willingness to listen and advice. The mentor and the mentee meet regularly and discuss aspects of the mentee’s job, such as career development. The mentor does not act as a line manager or superior and is never judgemental, but acts as a sounding board and is able to offer ideas and a different outlook on work issues. The Hilton hotel chain runs a mentoring scheme for its staff at all levels. Its purpose is to support staff in their career development. Mentors at the Hilton chain are often colleagues of the mentees doing similar jobs, which departs from the traditional model. All of the mentors have had mentoring training. Some companies have similar, but sometimes less formal, schemes where a new member of staff is given a ‘buddy’ as a source of information and help. * Job security Many contracts today are fixed term, especially in areas such as visitor attractions. This means that the period of employment is not indefinite but lasts for a period of months or a year or two. The reason for such contracts is flexibility for employers- they can lose staff on fixed contracts at the end of the period without penalty. However, such contracts are demotivating for staff as they worry about their future income and job prospects. C) Describe with examples, how incentives can impact on motivation and contribute to an effective workplace in travel and tourism including: * Remuneration Remuneration means how much you get paid. You would imagine that this is very important as a motivator. In fact, it is an important factor in attracting people to a company but research shows that it is not the most important incentive. * Performance related pay Bonuses are often based on overall profits and awarded to all employees- usually performance related. * Incentive scheme An example of an incentive scheme could be a competition that staff are invited to enter. The competitions may be based on generating new ideas within the company, or how to boost sales, customer satisfaction or commissions on sales. * Discounts Discounts may be given on holidays or travel for those working in the industry. Many who work in travel and tourism receive cheap travel, perhaps by going on standby if they work for an airline or by going on fact-finding trips to a destination if they work for a travel agent. * Holiday entitlement In the UK employees can expect around 4 weeks’ paid holiday per year. In the public sector more holiday is often given, but this may be balanced against lower pay. * Pension schemes A good pension scheme can act as an incentive for many people who are concerned about security in retirement. * Perks As a perk, employees in the travel and tourism industry are often provided with a uniform. They may get to travel or live aboard and be paid to live there. They may be provided with a company car. * Opportunities for promotion and progression Many employees need a challenge and if they are in the same position, doing a job they find easy, they may become bored and less efficient. Thus, opportunities to move on and face new challenges are an important incentive. Opportunities may arise within an organisation and good people are quickly promoted. You may wish to let it be known that you are interested in progression and ask to be sent on relevant training courses and conferences. D) Described, with examples, how training can impact on motivation and contribute to an effective workplace in travel and tourism including: * Training Those employers who wish o ensure an effective workplace will offer ongoing training and development to staff. There are several benefits to organisations add to their workforces. Training can: * Improve individual performance * Improve team performance * Allow staff to be better informal * Equip staff to deal with change and emergencies * Make for a more flexible workforce * Improve morale * Allow managers more time to manage through delegation of other tasks. * Induction training Employers have to provide instruction and training to ensure health and safety, and this is usually a part of induction training. The induction is the first stage of training and is given to new employees; it is important as new employees need to be made welcome and become effective in their work as quickly as possible. Induction covers: * The nature of the job * Introduction to the workplace and to staff * The lines of responsibility * Facilities such as toilets, lockers, canteen * Health and safety basics * Training opportunities * In-house training Large companies offer their own in-house training and may even write their own materials. These training courses are very beneficial as they are tailor- made to meet the needs of the company. * External courses Thousands of external courses are available. These may be specific to travel and tourism or other professional qualifications in areas such as marketing or human resource management. They may be offered by colleges, by travel associations or by private companies. Companies may allow individuals or groups to attend such courses. Some may be long term, leading to advanced qualifications, so a great deal of commitment is required on behalf of the individual.

Discussion Board Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 9

Discussion Board - Essay Example Therefore, the equilibrium quantity is determined by output amount a firm decides to supply. For instance, Samsung and Nokia companies are all phone companies and their demand in the market is determined by equilibrium where price is given in the market and not by demand or supply forces. The government intervention has a strong influence on a willing late comer to join the market industry. Government interventions may allow late comers to challenge those who entered first in the market. If they do so, there is a shift of extra returns by government intervention in a particular firm from another state to the national economy. For instance, a real life situation is whereby if China can be allowed to supply phones to America, there will be a reduction in returns received by phone making companies in America as they will not enjoy all the profits as before. Financial ratios are designed with the aim of determining the weaknesses and strengths of a firm. The investors need financial analysis to know the riskiness of cash flows and future cash flows of a firm. An individual is able to know a company’s strength or weakness by analyzing the past performance of the firm and mapping it to the future plans. The analysis is mainly done by analyzing financial statements. For instance, in debt ratio, the greater the ratio, the lower the protection that can be afforded by creditors upon liquidation (Hacker,

Ecological Modernization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Ecological Modernization - Essay Example It is a new approach that makes the society become more concerned with the environment issues that are affecting it. It is a new approach that is aimed at making the world have a new outlook at how it can integrate the modern technology not only in meeting g its n needs but also in meeting the needs of the environment as well. This new approach is taking place in several spheres including the changing role of science and technology, increasing important of marketing dynamics and various economical agents, the transformation in the role of the nation and state, modification in the new position and ideology of social movement in the society, and the changing discursive practices with integration to the new emerging ideologies. (Fisher and Freudenburg, 2001) There are many ways in which the concept of ecological modernization can be applied in the modern world and as far as we deal with the environment and the need to advance in technology. There are many supporters of the concept who have argued that the rationale behind the ecological Modernization is the need to develop in all aspects of the life. In this regard, the society needs to develop economically and socially and at the same time take care of the environment. What have been happenings in the world has acted as a wake up call to the whole world on the need to be conscious to the needs of the environment. In this regard, there is need for the world to become more focused on the changes that are taking place in the environment. The theory of ecological modernization assume that there are some way in which the world cause the modern technological in order to help to reduce consumption of the resource and at the same time increase efficiency in the use of resources. In this regard it calls for a change in the production process to be focused on reducing wastage of resource using some means like waste recycling and others. This has been one of the positions of the industrial ecology which has taken the concept of using the raw material sparingly in order to enhance sustainable development. (Cahill, 2002) Therefore one of the most important aspects of this theory is that the support needed to have sustainable development. As defined by the United Nations, sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the present generation but in a way that it does not compromise the ability of the future generations to meet their needs as well. Therefore it postulates that we are guardians of the world for the future generation. In this regard we have to use the resources that we have in a sparingly manner so that we can enhance the ability of the future generation to meet their needs from the same resource. Ecological modernization calls for the use of modern technology in a way that it will help use to use our resources and at the same time help the future generation to use the same recourses. One of the strength in the development of the theory has been the support that the theory has been receiving from the civil societies. In this regard the rise of the civil society has been one of the most important factors that has enable the growth for the theory. This has been due to that fact that the civil

Marketing Term Paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Marketing Term - Research Paper Example Through engaging the consumer in a dialogue that promotes community and goodwill, there was no advertising campaigns until 2004, the company depending on word of mouth to promote its interests and gain a following. That following measures more than 4 million members, worldwide (Bloomberg). The marketing that has been engaged since 2004 has seen some turmoil with the perceived competitor, Weight Watchers, being directly confronted in a campaign, but the adversary fought back with a court injunction which ended that campaign. However, it might be concluded that Curves gained better publicity as being put in a position as a threat to Weight Watchers, so much so that they were directly confronted through legal action to shut down their advertising. This is a wise strategy, however, the company may soon face the same problems that Weight Watchers faces, which is as their targeted demographic ages out and the rising younger set sees them as a dinosaur of their mother’s age, combatin g a dated image will create an issue. Weight Watchers has confronted their problems through advertising that mimics the Jenny Craig advertising, using celebrities to promote their success through publicly visible weight loss on their programs. However, where Jenny Craig has used a middle aged set of celebrities, Weight Watchers used Jennifer Hudson to kick off their campaign, a decidedly younger star. This leaves curves facing the same problems as Weight Watchers in that through promoting a socialized setting, the age group becomes relevant to the attraction to the program. The following assessment will discuss the current and past methods of marketing that have been introduced for Curves. The background of the company will be given an overview in order to provide context in understanding the nature of the current standing of the company. An analysis of the marketing strategies and their results will be assessed for the successes and failures that have been experienced. A SWOT analy sis will then be conducted in order to provide an overview of the nature of the company in regard to how it will impact a marketing plan. The SWOT analysis will be addressed for the ways in which it can be utilized to address the future of the company. Finally, a summary of the marketing direction of Curves will be made with recommendations for addressing weaknesses and threats through exploiting the strengths and opportunities that are present. Background Curves International Fitness for Women has franchises in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Europe, Australia and Asia. The company has well over 6000 stores, with the rate of their expansion earning them a title in the Guinness Book of World Records (Heavin and Colman 2). The first store was opened in Harlingen, Texas, with the first franchise opening Paris, Texas in 1995 with all stores now being a franchised venue (Curves International Fitness for Women). The company was opened in 1992, and by 2003 had expanded to the 6000 stor e mark, placing them in the record book. Hoovers lists more than 10,000 company stores are in existence to date. Gary and Diane Heavin opened the stores with a specific demographic in mind. Gary Heavin had ten years of experience in the fitness industry before designing this model with a specific target demographic (Funding Universe). The intention was to address the needs of women through nutrition and efficient exercise that kept the sessions short, thus providing an easy

I Was There Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

I Was There Paper - Essay Example You might not know much about this time period within the history of our society because there is less written information on the same. Still, you can go through our pictorial writings and know more about this time period. So, I am starting with the I Dynasty. Before the establishment of this dynasty, my nation was divided into two. But our king was that much influential and powerful enough to unify the divided nation into a single unit under a centralized authority. The United States Department of Defense stated that â€Å"The Archaic or Early Dynastic Period of Egypt immediately follows the unification of Lower and Upper Egypt c. 3100 BC† (n.pag). During the time of unification, the Upper Egypt was the axis of power because our king was from the Egyptian province known as Thinite. Besides, the unification was a tiresome effort because the people of the Lower part of our nation fought bravely. Still, our king became victorious because his aim was noble. He contributed so many innovative ideas to our society. For instance, he helped artisans like me by creating trade links with other nations like Phoenicia. Within the context of our society, our new king is the mastermind behind the establishme nt of an important city named as Crocodilopolis. Similarly, our king did not neglect our gods because he constructed a big temple dedicated to our god named as Ptah. But there are so many stories related to the death of our first king because some people say that the king was killed by dogs and some other say that he was killed by a wild animal. His name as Scorpion King derives from his family sign of scorpion. But one can see that the death of our first king did not end the influence of the royal family within our society. For instance, the queen named as Neithotep ascended the throne and began to rule over the vast nation. To be specific, the queen decided to do so because her aim was to help her young son named as Djer, to be the

Chapter 10 Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Chapter 10 - Case Study Example Adults within the community identified an inability to control social problems because of social disorders within the community members, which contributed to the increased spread of HIV by promoting immoral behaviors. The churches only contributed to the control by creating solutions through identifying community needs and not considering issues contributing to the spread of HIV (Cene et al., 2011). Some of the community based used to control HIV include the use of media to provide information concerning HIV AIDS. Training of community leaders can help reduce stigma among community members. Other activities that the group identified include use of group counseling to provide and outreach to the entire community (Cene et al., 2011). According to the youth, disagreed with the adults view and felt that tension within the society like lack of cohesion related to separation and poverty made different individuals within the community fail to identify their individual belonging and reduced the availability of resources outside individual networks. The youths explained racial conflicts between whites and AA, disagreements based on region borders, and economic differences among members of the community contributed to the conflict (Cene et al., 2011). The study participants felt that those churches did not provide enough information to control the spread of HIV within the community. Some of the church leaders do not talk about HIV or even get involved in community activities that provide information of HIV. Church leaders consider HIV a disease brought by homosexuality and fornication. These opinions helped to distance some people and very difficult to get the numerous resources inbuilt in the churches (Cene et al., 2011). The techniques used to handle this challenge include, cohesiveness among people which assist in reducing the spread of HIV. Doctors should use the information to modify

Article Review 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Article Review 2 - Essay Example With the end in view of a win-win situation, the then-President Clinton promised that the â€Å"agreement will open China’s market to us.† However, within the span of 6 years, there have been rampant findings that China’s agricultural exports, specially that of veterinary feeds have been adulterated with at least 3 chemicals detrimental and derogatory to the Americans. Chemicals posing health hazards are the likes of melamine, cyanuric acid, diethylene glycol, have been separately found in the Chinese agricultural produce exported to the U.S., whose remedial actions are more costly than the short and long-run cost-benefit analysis. The PNTR with China as part of the World Trade Organization (WTO) cum â€Å"globalization has turned out to be a cheat.† The trade relations with China is too costly for the Americans which poses threat to health, life, and limbs of the â€Å"Beautiful American† ecology. While the â€Å"Americans can’t count the cost merely in dollars and in bushels,† China is not at par with the American â€Å"health, sanitary or safety standards.† The actual U.S. findings on product adulteration by Chinese traders, despite the latter’s haggling and denial, are merely ignored by globalists and free-traders for years—simply because of profit-motive. The reviewer agrees with the Author, whose heart and soul is merely to protect and conserve American legacy against the ill-effects of development and globalization. Profit-motive and human greed is the root-cause of this trade war and disequilibrium. When deceit and fraud are prevalent, the goods and services in the commerce of men are felt immediately in the short and in the long while. Progress and development has its price, but we can procure conservatively by not hurrying too much, and by taking time to study more seriously before opening the â€Å"pandora’s box5† to our detriment. The elders have spoken, why don’t we listen and take pains in

Screening Medical Disorders Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Screening Medical Disorders - Essay Example Correspondingly, the data collected also provided idea that a considerable number of people need support during post-treatment phase owing to certain difficulties that are likely to arise. These types of criticalities have certain impacts on the patients that include both physical as well as psychological complications. Therefore, therapists aligned with providing effective care play a significant role to undertake these decisions during such emergency associated with surgeries or other critical diseases. Additionally, the physical therapists must possess adequate knowledge for providing proper medical treatment. Adequate knowledge about providing primary care enables the therapists to take proper care of the patients and assists them in recovering from their ailments. However, if the physical therapists lack technical knowledge regarding the surgical process or treating patients suffering from critical diseases then it is most likely that the patients are provided with a vague or im proper treatment. This might also add up to further deterioration of health and can lead to loss of life (Boissonnault, 2010; Fair, 2010). Additionally, the patients who have participated in the survey have considerable knowledge regarding surgery and other diseases that they are suffering. This further reflects that the primary care therapists taking care of the same are playing an effective role towards educating the patients about the diseases and providing knowledge about the probable treatments.

Topics In Global Economy Essay Example for Free

Topics In Global Economy Essay With such drastic globalization of worldwide economics, it is now an issue of vast importance to us all.   The impact of current trends in global economics affects each nation and the corporations within it, as well as every citizen, working or unemployed, within its population.   Global economics was inevitable, given the statistics reflecting the increasing popularity of the world wide web as well as the unlimited communications capabilities allowing us to conduct business or easily buy products either from a local business or from a market on the other side of the world.    However, the global market is chiefly responsible for stabilizing inflation rates in the European and U.S. arenas.   One byproduct of global economics is the development and implementation of the Euro dollar. Although it is result of globalization, it has effectively addressed the long standing issues of confusion and instability in the international trade market due to the continuous fluctuations of the scores of currencies existing in the world marketplace. A significant slowing in inflationary trends has been noted during the last few years but many believe that the future will bring a series of setbacks as well.   In The Grandfather Economic Report, Michael Hodges wrote that â€Å"in the 1990’s the (U.S.) federal government created $2.8 trillion of new debt†¦ more than created in the nation’s entire history prior to 1990 †¦.and another $2.7 trillion since 9/11/01.† Yet federal deposit income in China increases by roughly 15% each year.   This rate of growth will have a serious impact on the U.S. national debt.   With an increasingly disproportional balance of import and export trade between the U.S. and Asia, an alarming loss of revenue will certainly plague America and Europe.   This trend will be hard to reverse if changes in the trade balance can not be initiated.   Most of these conditions resulting from the Asian policy that devalues their currencies compared to that of the dollar. The impact of this policy on the US trade balance is negative.   With more dollars being sent to Asia due to devalued exchange rates, statistics begin to reflect a deficit of funds as well as trade block tactics such as high import tariffs discourage these sales in the Asian market. The impact of this policy on the trade balance on Asian economies is that a continue trend of economic prosperity can be anticipated for these Asian nations.   This trend, if allowed to continue, will also bring growth at successively higher percentage rates with each passing year. The effect this policy has and will have on the interest rate on Asian and US treasury securities is that these rates will continue to fall in the U.S. due in the this policy.   Japan’s Finance Minister Kiichi Miyazawa states that â€Å"We acknowledge the importance of the internationalisation of the yen in light of global economic and financial developments such as the Asian financial crisis: the birth of the euro also attests its importance. In this context, we have recently announced measures to promote the yen’s internationalisation, which include measures to increase liquidity in Japan’s short-term financial markets as well as those to facilitate investment by foreign investors in Japanese government bonds.†Ã‚   This policy will surely bring about a successful reversal of downward spiraling of Asian interest rates. As for how this policy will level of indebtedness of US households, businesses and Government, a continuation of this policy regime will undoubtedly result in a rise in debt levels for all, as set the stage for possible economic depression not only for the U.S. Government and global scale due to enormity of the global economics venue. Immediate and viable initiatives must be utilized in order to prevent this threat.

Characteristics and Gambling Habits of Bingo Players

Characteristics and Gambling Habits of Bingo Players An Investigation into the Characteristics and Gambling Habits of Bingo Players in the UK Introduction Bingo is a popular pastime in the UK, and has grown as an industry over recent years, moving away from local community centres to dedicated bingo halls and numerous online sites. As with all industries, to ensure that there is a continual renewal of customers, those in the bingo industry must be able to target their marketing strategies effectively. This means that they need to be able to identify who their target audience is for them to be able to deliver an effective marketing campaign which is aimed predominantly at those people (Aaker et al., 2000). Studies in the past have suggested that bingo is considered to be a rather low-level leisure activity. As a result, it has also been previously associated heavily with being a pastime of predominantly working class women (Dixey, 1987). In addition, it is generally associated with pensioners, largely due to the sedentary but social nature of the game (Cousins Witcher, 2007). Although this may have been the case a number of years ago, there is little recent empirical evidence to determine whether this is still the main market for bingo. Given the changing nature of the game and its delivery, it is plausible that changes in the main demographic of players may also be in a process of change. This study therefore uses pre-collected data to evaluate whether this may be the case. Rationale of Study Gathering information on the demographics of people who play bingo, or are interested in playing bingo, is likely to be useful to bingo halls for targeting their marketing campaigns. In addition, with the advent of online gambling, understanding whether current online gamblers would be likely to participate in bingo games if they were available may be important in design of online gaming sites. Marketing opportunities online may also be improved if evidence is available of the demographics of the target audience. Consideration will also be given to the expenditure of different demographic groups on bingo, as this information may be useful in the industry for determining customer value. Study Hypothesis Based on the previous literature, it is hypothesised that the main demographic of bingo players will be predominantly women, but that there will be a substantial number of younger players. It is also expected that there will be an association between those gaming online and those playing bingo. Finally, it is expected that there will be no difference in the expenditure on bingo between age groups. Methodology Origins of the Data The data which is used in this study was taken from the British Gambling Prevalence Study 2007, which was the largest study of its kind to be conducted in the UK to the present date. The study was commissioned by the National Centre for Social Research and aimed to collect information on gambling habits and demographics in order to assess the prevalence of problem gambling within the UK. Study Population The study was designed to be representative of all adults in the UK aged 16 years and older who were living within private households. Study Sample All residences in the UK were separated into Primary Sampling Units (PSUs) and 317 of these were randomly selected for the study. The probability of selecting each was apportioned according to the number of addresses within them, but no other demographics were taken into account. For each PSU which was selected, 32 addresses were selected randomly, and this gave a total of 10,144 addresses. After non-completion, the total sample available in the data-set was 9003. Study Instrument The study was conducted using a multiple-choice questionnaire. This clearly explained at the beginning the goal of the study, and explained clearly how the survey form should be completed. A coding document was then compiled to code the answers into statistical software packages, and this was included alongside the data-set. A copy of the questionnaire which was used is available from http://www.data-archive.ac.uk/findingData/snDescription.asp?sn=5836. The data which was included in the data-set was already weighted to account for non-response and bias, and this was completed by the researchers who completed the data collection and original analysis. Results Proportion of Bingo Players in the Sample The results of the analysis indicate that only a small minority of the population sampled had played bingo in the last twelve months, with a total of 7.5% of the sample. This is shown graphically in Figure 1. Table 2 then details the frequency with which that small group had played bingo. It may be seen that 45% of those who had played bingo in the last twelve months had done so less than once a month. A total of 36.4% of those who played bingo in the last twelve months had done so once a week or more, and a further 15.6% reported playing at least once a month. This information is then presented graphically in Figure 2. Table 1. The frequency with which respondents reported playing bingo in the last twelve months. For those who had played bingo in the last twelve months, the mean age was 47.78 with a standard deviation of 18.08, while it was 47.75 for those who had not played bingo in the last twelve months, with a standard deviation of 18.33. Performing an independent two-sample t-test on the data produced a p-value of 0.963, which indicates that the null hypothesis may not be rejected. This means that there is no significant difference between the mean age of the two groups at the 95% confidence level. Age of Bingo Players Table 2 displays the mean age of each group when those playing bingo within the last twelve months were grouped according to frequency of playing. Alongside the mean, the standard deviation is also given. This information is presented in the box-plot in Figure 3. This shows that the mean age of the players appears to increase as the frequency of playing increases. In addition, it would also appear that the variation in age is smallest in the group who play at least twice a week. Performing a one-way ANOVA analysis indicates that there is an association between age and the frequency of playing bingo and that the null hypothesis of no association may be rejected at the 5% level (p Table 2. Mean and standard deviation of the age of players grouped according to the frequency with which they play bingo. Gender of Bingo Players Of those who had played bingo in the last twelve months, 71.4% were female, and this percentage is show graphically in Figure 4. A chi-squared analysis indicates that there is evidence that the null hypothesis may be rejected at the 5% level (p Player Expenditure on Bingo Expenditure and Gender Analysis of the data shows that females who had played bingo in the last twelve months lost a mean of  £319 over the previous 7 days, with standard deviation 506. In contrast, males lost a mean of  £60.50 over the 7 days, with a standard deviation of 4.95. An independent samples t-test revealed that there is evidence at the 0.95 significance level against the null hypothesis of no association. This therefore indicates that there is a significant difference between the amount lost by males and females (p = 0.045). Expenditure and Age Figure 5 shows a scatter-plot of the total amount which each respondent reported losing at bingo in the last seven days plotted against their age. The black dots represent female participants while red dots represent males. It would appear from this plot that there is no association between the amount of money lost at bingo and the age of the player, for either males or females. A bivariate regression analysis of this data confirms this. It indicated that there was no evidence against the null hypothesis of no association, and so age was not found to be a significant predictor of the amount lost at bingo over the seven day period (p = .489). Figure 6 presents a scatter-plot of age against expenditure on bingo over the previous seven days when winnings are also taken into account in addition to losses. There was far more data available for this analysis, but it would still appear that there is no particular association between age and expenditure on bingo, for either males or females. This was confirmed by regression analysis, which indicated there was no evidence against the null hypothesis of no association (p = .187). Therefore it was concluded that there was no association between age and overall expenditure on bingo over the previous week. Expenditure and Frequency of Playing Bingo Figure 7 presents a box-plot of the amounts lost at bingo according to the frequency of playing bingo in the last twelve months. It would appear from this graph that those playing twice a week lost less than those who played less often, as the mean is lower and the variation is less. An ANOVA analysis however indicated that there was no evidence against the null hypothesis of association. This indicates that there is therefore no association between the frequency of playing bingo over the last twelve months and the amount lost at bingo (p = .925). Figure 8 presents a similar box-plot analysis which takes account of the winnings of players in addition to losses. When comparing the different frequency of playing groups it would appear that overall expenditure appears to be relatively consistent. The variation in expenditure does however appear to be somewhat larger in the group which play two times or more a week. One-way ANOVA analysis of this data confirms that there is no evidence against the null hypothesis of no association (p = .731). Therefore it may be concluded that frequency of playing bingo over the last twelve months did not impact on the overall expenditure of the player on bingo over the last week. Online Gamblers and Bingo Table 3 presents a cross-tabulation of the number of participants who reported having played bingo over the previous twelve months and those who reported having gambled online over the previous twelve months. This shows that of those who had reported playing bingo in the last twelve months, only 8% reported gambling online during that time (Figure 9). In contrast, 26.3% of those who had gambled online over the last twelve months reported that they had also played bingo during that period (Figure 10). A chi-squared analysis of this data indicates that there is strong evidence against the null hypothesis of no association (p Table 3. The number of respondents who had gambled online over the previous twelve months and the number who had played bingo over the previous twelve months. Figure 11 presents a scatter-plot of the net expenditure on bingo in comparison to the net expenditure on online gambling, both over the previous seven day period. From this chart it would appear that there is no association between the two. A regression analysis confirms that there is no evidence against the null hypothesis of no association (p = .882). Therefore it must be concluded that there is no significant association between the total expenditure of the respondents on online gambling and their total expenditure on bingo over the same time period. Discussion From this study it may be seen that there are certain demographic characteristics which are associated with playing bingo. It would appear from the results that bingo players are in the minority, with only 7.5% of the population estimated to have played in 2007, and only 2.7% of the population playing once a week or more. As hypothesised at the beginning, there was no particular age group which was associated with playing bingo. There is however evidence that it is an older age group which is associated with playing bingo regularly, with the mean age being in the mid- to late-fifties for those playing once a week or more. Despite this, there was no association between age and the amount spent on bingo in a week. This indicates that older people are still the main demographic for the industry but that they are not particularly more valuable than younger people. They may however be more valuable if their spend is consistent week after week, when compared to younger players who may play only once a month or less. There was also no association between frequency of playing and expenditure within the week. This is an important implication as it suggests that customers who can be attracted to regularly play bingo will be consistent with their spending, and not reduce spending as they play more over the year. Almost three quarters of players were female, and it was also females who were associated with much larger expenditure on bingo. This finding is however somewhat limited, as only information on the expenditure of two males was available for analysis. Therefore this finding may not have a high statistical power. Finally, there is evidence that there is an association between bingo players and those gambling online. This is important as it suggests that there is potential in both advertising for bingo online and also in online bingo rooms. The extent to which an individual gambles online does not however appear to be associated with how much they spend on bingo. Therefore online players may not be more valuable than those attracted through offline methods. Although this study has provided some useful insights for those interested in the demographics of bingo players, there are some limitations. One of the main limitations is that there was little social information available in the study which related to income and social status of the respondents. It is possible that this may impact on gambling habits, including playing bingo (Barry et al., 2007). This may be important in areas where there are either large levels of population in higher or lower social classes. Therefore further market research in particular areas may be useful in determining the potential for marketing in that particular area. References Aaker, J.L., Brumbaugh, A.M. Grier, S.A. (2000) Nontarget markets and viewer distinctiveness: The impact of target marketing on advertising. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 9(3), 127-140. Barry, D.T., Maciejewski, P.K., Desai, R.A. Potenza, M.N. (2007) Income differences and recreational gambling. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 1(3), 145-153. Cousins, S.O. Witcher, C.S.G. (2007) Who plays bingo in later life? The sedentary lifestyles of ‘little old ladies’. Journal of Gambling Studies, 23(1), 95-112. Dixey, R. (1987) It’s a great feeling when you win: Women and bingo. Leisure Studies, 6(2), 199-214. National Centre for Social Research (2007) British Gambling Prevalence Survey 2007. Available [online] from: http://www.data-archive.ac.uk/findingData/snDescription.asp?sn=5836 [Accessed 12/12/2008].

Living Together before Marriage Essay -- Argumentative Persuasive Coha

Living Together Before Marriage There are many advantages and disadvantages in living together before marriage. Today there are many couples living together before marriage. Sometimes these kinds of relationships 'living together before marriage' end up with success and sometimes they are unsuccessful. Some of the advantages of living together before marriage are such as getting to know your partner, learning about one's abilities if he/she can satisfy your expectations and more. Also, there are some disadvantages in living together before marriage and they are such as religious and family values, parenting problems and more. I think there are more advantages then disadvantages in living together before marriage, because sometimes disadvantages in this kind of relationship are avoidable. One of the advantages of living together before marriage is getting to know a person that you might marry with. It is important for a person to know almost everything about the other person that he/she is going to get marry with. However, it can?t be accomplish without living together for a while before getting married. People need to know how a person is handling his/her life from all aspects such as behavior, mental, financial and others before a person decides to get married with. This can not be completed in a few days, therefore, it is important to live together for a while before deciding weather to get married or now. Also, learning about a person?s abilities to satisfy yo...

Television Censorship Essay -- essays research papers

Television Censorship WHAT IS CENSORSHIP? "Censorship is the supervision and control of the information and ideas that are circulated among the people within a society. In modern times, censorship refers to the examination of books, periodicals, plays, films, television and radio programs, news reports, and other communication media for the purpose of altering or suppressing parts thought to be objectionable or offensive. The objectionable material may be considered immoral or obscene, heretical or blasphemous, seditious or treasonable, or injurious to the national security. Thus, the rationale for censorship is that it is necessary for the protection of three basic social institutions: the family, the church, and the state. Censorship and the ideology supporting it go back to ancient times. Every society has had customs, taboos, or laws by which speech, play, dress, religious observance, and sexual expression were regulated(Microsoft Encarta 95)." CENSORSHIP OF OBSCENITY "The beginning of a new legal approach may be traced to the action of the federal courts in the 1930s, when they held that Irish author James Joyce's Ulysses was not obscene and could be freely passed through customs. The courts ruled that the use of "dirty words" in "a sincere and honest book" did not make the book "dirty." Since the 1950s many obscenity cases involving books, magazines, and film have been brought before the Supreme Court. In the cases during the 1970s the court ruled that laws against obscenity must be limited " to works which, taken as a whole, appeal to the prurient interest in sex; which portray sexual conduct in a patently offensive way; and which, taken as a whole, do not have serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value." The Court has further held that obscenity should be determined by applying "contemporary community standards" rather than national standards (Microsoft Encarta 95)." WHO DOES TELEVISION CENSORSHIP EFFECT? CENSORSHIP AFFECTS MINORS AND ADULTS Does censorship affect both minors and adults? One incident in Ohio led a mother of a 5 year old boy to believe so. The boy's mother attributed his actions to the influence of the popular MTV cartoon show Beavis and Butthead. In response to watching this cartoon the boy set his house on fir... ...censorship of television. The government of the United States of America has been getting very involved in what they think is appropriate to be on television. I want to know why they get to decide what I want to watch. I feel that it should be a person's choice. They say they are concerned with what children are viewing, or that some things such as nudity and swear words offend people. Parents should monitor what their children watch. If a parent does not want their child to see something in particular, then it is the parent's responsibility to see that they do not, not the government's (Microsoft Internet Explorer)." What do you think? Should our government continue to enforce television and film censorship as it has been? Or should all forms of censorship be abolished completely? THE PURPOSE "It is the purpose of this Act to increase competition in all telecommunications markets and provide for an orderly transition from regulated markets to competitive and deregulated telecommunications markets consistent with the public interest, convenience, and necessity (Telecommunications Bill of 1995, Internet)."

Technology and Power :: Essays Papers

Technology and Power Effective communication can both create empires and destroy them. For the former, communication is a necessity in connecting the parts of an empire, so to keep the whole sizable. An empire must keep in contact with its armies, outposts, and inner areas so to maintain order to be able to adjust its defenses in response to an enemy attack. It must also, when still growing, be able to conquer new lands and people. For the latter, unless its defenses are in communication with back up forces and resources, the only victorious defense is one that results from a battle of attrition. This essay will exam two forms of one communication technology: encoding. It will be remembered that one class or race is without representation, and has not the advantages of the press or the telegraph to bring it into communication with the intelligence of the world, and is seldom heard except in the cry of alarm and conflict along the Western frontier. --Brigadier General Nelson A. Miles, United States Army, March 1879* Though written specifically about the conflicts that the United States had with the Native Americans throughout the Nineteenth century, General Miles' statement is a fact applicable to every conquest ever made. The ability to communicate effectively with one's forces during a conquest is, except perhaps, in cases where the conquest consists mainly of battles of attrition, a key factor of victory. A commander must have accurate, updated intelligence reports informing him of his conquest's military abilities and locations, any skirmishes between forces, supply routes, etc. This communication ability, as well as every piece of weaponry or tool used by the conqueror, is a direct result of human ingenuity, specifically as it is applied to technological advancement. In the second half of the 19th century, as the Western world embraced the Industrial Revolution, our nation's political powers focused their eyes on the vast lands of the Western frontier. To better understand the needs for communication technology in this conquest, let's first get a little history lesson on what happened. During this conquest of the West, an Apache Chief known as Geronimo led the Chiricahua Apaches in a series of revolts against the American tyranny that had seized Apache lands, herded its people into a Reservation, then abolished the Reservation to reclaim the land for white Americans.

Canadian Strategy of Economic Development Essay

In this article the researchers have used secondary research and they have conducted intrevies and triangulation. They have emphasized that the colonialization has greatly affected the growth of Canada and the people however want a more tradionally and culturally grounded foundation. The indigenous people think that they have right to maintain their political, economics and social systems. The prevailing conditions are very bad as they people have a lot of health and educational problems. The article explain that the Canadian are currently pursuing a strategy of economic development with a social entrepreneurship as their core activity. The paper has in a very sound way defined the problems of the people and what they want. They say that economic development can be achieved by 4 ways first by having greater control of activities on their traditional lands. They should be more self determined and put an end to dependence on self sufficiency. They should preserve and strength their traditional values and apply them in economic development and their should be improved socio-economics circumstances for individuals. The researcher have tried to answer the question whether the indigenous people have the power for economic development. The say that they do have the power and currently followed three broad perspective firstly modernization in which till 1960 they used to follow the path of first world countries but it was useless after 1960 when most of Latin America failed. Second perspective was radical perspective which stated that everything is happening cause of the First world War however both these perspectives when applied in real world were illogical and the results gained from them were also not fruitful. Thirdly was the regulation perspective which is a new approach to development that emphasis contingency. They explained that the world has moved away from the concept of ‘0Invisible hand’ of perfectly functioning market they believe that everyone is working for their own benefit so the presence of a government is necessary. The problem with this perspective is that Scott stated that â€Å" Regulation theory does not preassemble the exact nature of a particular mode of social regulation each region can be regulated by a multiplicity of ways. PECK AND TICKBULL ALSO STATED THAT â€Å"THE MODES OF REGUYLZATION IS BASED UPON THINGS AS HABIT, social norms, enforceable laws and state forms. The researcher stated that they provided the people with a questionnaire in which they were asked to opt in or opt out. The people  chose â€Å"Opt In† in which the people were ready to practicable in the global economic growth and were ready to take the necessary steps. In the article the researcher also pointed out that the land claims and economic growth can be both solved by government policy and development strategies of entrepreneurs. There could be more research in which they could ask the views of the people as to what they think should be done. More of primary research should be taken place as secondary data becomes outdated after some time period. More future research csan be done as to how more investors form other countries could be attracted to Canada. Whether their cultural is one that is welcoming and the nature of the people. More research should be done as to what roles government should play to make the people ready to move along with its policies. In tbhe End there were a lot of incidents which were related as to what decision the people and the government faced and what decision were taken. In the conclusion they have stated that they have decreased their role and interference in the lives of the people . More authority is given to the people so that the social economics objectives are achieved and how other economies like them can take measure like them in order to be more socially economic growth indigenous economies.

Hershey Essay

The Hershey’s company mission is â€Å"Bringing sweet moments of Hershey happiness to the world every day. † Hershey’s mission statement is short and sweet. They are able to address the majority of the nine components of the mission Statement with one sentence. Their customers are the world, their product is Hershey, their market is the world, their philosophy is to bring happiness, and their self-concept is that they perceive themselves as a company that can bring happy moments to individuals who use their products across the world everyday. There are nine component of mission statement ,whisch is Customers, Products/Services, Geographic Markets, Technology, Concern for Survival, Philosophy, Public Image and EmployeesDistinctive Competence. The mission statement needs to include some description of the function of the business. For example, â€Å"to promote industrial excellence,† tells customers and employees nothing. A more effective description would be â€Å"To provide management consulting services. † An effective mission statement sets out, in broad terms, the target market. A manufacturer that makes nuts and bolts might set its target market as retail hardware stores, machine manufacturers, or both. The business must determine what region it serves best and relay that information by way of the mission statement. A garage, for example, might limit its target region to the community while a magazine company might target an entire country. Mission statements typically include a statement of company values. Values such as customer service, efficiency and eco-consciousness often appear on lists of company values. At their best, company values should express principles the company explicitly tries to affirm in day-to-day operations. For businesses that rely heavily on technology, the mission statement should include a description of the essential technology the company does or plans to employ. If nothing else, this directs purchasing agents toward the appropriate vendors for goods and services. Every company has a policy regarding its relationship with employees. A mission statement provides an opportunity to describe that policy in brief so employees know the essentials of where they stand. Effective mission statements also include a brief description of the business’s strategic position within the market. For example, the company might excel at serving residential clients and seek to maximize that strategic advantage. For for-profit ventures, businesses require clear financial objectives. A start-up company might set one of its financial objectives as making an initial public offering of common stock within two years. This lets the employees and potential investors know the company intends to go public, with all of the legal and record keeping ramifications that entails. Like people, companies develop public images. Careful companies craft the public image they want to establish and lay out the major features of it in the mission statement. This helps managers direct employees that stray from the sanctioned public image. Hershey’s objectives * To promote the health benefits of Hershey Chocolate * Help the consumers change their mind-set that chocolates are unhealthy * To spread awareness and increase sales of product Critically analysis the strategic objective of Hersheys company. Answer : Hersheys as the popular chocolate company has provided a good list of objectives of their company. Firstly, Hersheys company try to give an effort on promoting the health benefits of their product to shared it with thier customer. For the example, Hersheys company win their customer by influence them to make a choice Hersheys chocolate as the best healthy chocolate. This parallel to the second objective of Hersheys company that to bring hope to help the consumers to change their mind-set about the unhealthy of taking chocolate. So that, by implement the first and second strategy Hersheys company can increase sales of product and spread awareness well. Based on Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Responsible person and Time specific (SMART) Hersheys Company not follow the technique wisely. For the Specific part, Hershey company fail to specific their goals. They must try to answer the questions of how much and what kind with each goal writen. On part Measurable, the company must set the goals that stated in quantifiable terms, or otherwise they’re only good intentions. Measurable goals facilitate management planning, implementation, and control. Hershey shown the implement to getting the customers that has mind-set of chocolate is a healthy junk food. Besides that, the third aspect of SMART technique is Attainable that talk about the goals must provide a stretch that inspires people to aim higher and make sure the goals must be achievable, or they’re a set-up for failure. For the Hershey company, they objective or goals that want to change customer mind-set about taking chocolate is a good habits that inspired their customers to increase their loyalty. Fourth aspect is the responsible person or group of department to take the responsibility to run the objectives. The goals must be assigned to a person or a department. But just because a person is assigned to a goal doesn’t mean that she’s solely responsible for its achievement. Hershey company did not state clearly who or what department must take the important part of implement the objective of the company. Lastly, aspect of time specific which is reference to time, the goals must include a timeline of when the goals should be accomplished. The Hershey did not state it in their objective. This is make the goals can become flexible to achieve that never based on time setting. Besides that, Hershey company also has their own strategy as an backup of their objective which is entering new market in Canada, United States, Mexico,Brazil and other international locations(India,The Philippines ,Japan and China), producing new products with new brand name, expanding its global presence via joint venture and merger, supporting environmental and social projects, increase sales using promotional materials and the last is roducing healthy chocolates.

Role of Project Management

The Role of the Project Manager A project manager is the person who has the overall responsibility for the successful initiation, planning, design, execution, monitoring, controlling and closure of a project. The job title is used in construction, petrochemical, architecture, information technology and many different industries that produce products and services. The project manager must have a combination of skills including an ability to ask penetrating questions, detect unstated assumptions and resolve conflicts, as well as more general management skills.Key among his or her duties is the recognition that risk directly impacts the likelihood of success and that this risk must be both formally and informally measured throughout the lifetime of the project. Risks arise from uncertainty, and the successful project manager is the one who focuses on this as the main concern. Most of the issues that impact a project arise in one-way or another from risk. A good project manager can lesse n risk significantly, often by adhering to a policy of open communication, ensuring every significant participant has an opportunity to express opinions and concerns.It follows that a project manager is one who is responsible for making decisions both large and small, in such a way that risk is controlled and uncertainty minimized. Every decision taken by the project manager should be taken in such a way that it directly benefits the project. Project managers use project management software, such as Microsoft Project, to organize their tasks and workforce. These software packages allow project managers to produce reports and charts in a few minutes, compared with the several hours it can take if they do it by hand. Roles and ResponsibilitiesThe role of the project manager encompasses many activities including: ? Scope Management ? Time Management ? Cost Management ? Risk Management ? Quality Management ? Contract Management ? Communication Management ? Human Resources Management Fin ally, senior management must give a project manager support and authority if he or she is going to be successful. Scope Management Best Practices for Scope Management The knowledge area of Scope Management is all about making sure that the project includes only the work required to complete the project successfully.To be effective at scope management, project manager must learn to control what is and what is not in the scope of the project. Below are some of the best practices for successful scope management. ? Collect Project Requirements ? Define the Scope ? Create a Work Breakdown Structure ? Verify the Scope and Get Feedback ? Monitor and Control the Scope 1. Collect Project Requirements The ability to define and then effectively control the scope of a project depends a lot on the goals and requirements of the project. For this reason, project manager need to gather the necessary information up front, before you ever start the project.By clearly understanding the needs of the st akeholders and the capabilities and constraints of the resources, project manager have a higher chance to succeed. The easiest way to collect the project requirements is to perform interviews with the key stakeholders. Ask questions about their views of the finished product, the deliverables they expect to receive, and the schedule of the project. Once project manager have the information need, project manager may want to create a Scope Management Plan to define the processes that will be followed in defining scope, documenting scope, verifying and accepting scope, and managing change requests. . Define the Scope The scope of a project typically consists of a set of deliverables, an assigned budget, and an expected closure time. The previously collected project requirements will help project manager define the scope. Be sure to write down exactly what the project will entail and what it will not entail. Any amount of variation in the scope of the project can affect the project sched ule, budget, and ultimately the success of the project. Getting a clear and concise definition of the scope will help project manager manage changes as they occur.With a clear scope definition, project manager can simply ask the question, â€Å"Does this change fall within the scope of the project? † If the answer is yes, then approve the change. If the answer is no, then put a pin it and save it for another time or project. Scope Creep: Scope creep is something common with every project. This refers to the incremental expansion of the project scope. Most of the time, the client may come back to the service provider during the project execution and add more requirements. Most of such requirements haven't been in the initial requirements.As a result, change requests need to be raised in order to cover the increasing costs of the services provider. Due to business scope creep, there can be technological scope creep as well. The project team may require new technologies in order to address some of the new requirements in the scope. In such instances, the services provider may want to work with the client closely and make necessary logistic and financial arrangements. 3. Create a Work Breakdown Structure A work breakdown structure or WBS is a graphical representation of the hierarchy of the project.The WBS forces the project team to think through all levels of the project and identify the major tasks that need to be performed for the project to be completed on time. By starting with the end objective and then successively subdividing it into manageable steps or components in terms of size, duration, and responsibility, the WBS provides a high level view of the entire project. Furthermore, the framework makes planning and controlling the scope of the project much easier since project manager have a graphical chart to reference point for the tasks and subtasks needed for each phase of the project.As a general rule of thumb, no task within the WBS should be le ss than 8 hours or more than 80 hours. 4. Verify the Scope and Get Feedback Because projects are expected to meet strict deadlines, verifying the scope of the project is critical before and during the project cycle. Scope verification can be done after each major task or phase is completed or if it is a smaller project, after the project has been completed. To verify the scope, meet with the project customer or stakeholder and get him/her to formally accept the project deliverables.This includes getting a written acceptance of the deliverables and requesting feedback on the work performed. Getting feedback from the customer is an excellent way for project manager to improve processes and make sure the customer is happy with the work and the status of the project. The most important thing here is to communicate well and often. Verifying the scope and getting feedback will help you focus on customer acceptance, quality control, and verifying that work performed meets the definition of the scope of the project. 5. Monitor and Control the ScopeNow that the Scope has been clearly defined, a work breakdown structure has been organised, and the customer has formally accepted the scope of the project, it is time to actually manage and control the scope to avoid scope creep. Scope creep refers to the incremental expansion of the scope of the project, which may include and introduce more requirements that may not have been a part of the initial planning phases, but add costs and time to the original project. To effectively monitor and control the scope of the project, make sure project manager have an established process for managing change requests.Any and all requests should be vetted and approved before they get introduced into the project. The budget and schedule of the project should also be altered to reflect the new changes. These changes should get a formal sign-off from the customer or key stakeholder before proceeding. It is important that project manager clos ely monitor and control the scope to avoid disgruntled customers, higher than expected costs, and projects that aren't completed on time. Time Management Time Management refers to managing time effectively so that the right time is allocated to the right activity.Effective time management allows individuals to assign specific time slots to activities as per their importance. Time Management refers to making the best use of time as time is always limited. Know which work should be done earlier and which can be done a little later. Time Management plays a very important role not only in organizations but also in our personal lives. Time Management Includes: ? Effective Planning ? Setting goals and objectives ? Setting deadlines ? Delegation of responsibilities ? Prioritizing activities as per their importance Spending the right time on the right activity Effective Planning Prepare a To Do List or a â€Å"TASK PLAN†. Jot down the important activities that need to be done in a si ngle day against the time that should be allocated to each activity. High Priority work should come on top followed by those which do not need much of our importance at the moment. Complete pending tasks one by one. Do not begin fresh work unless we have finished our previous task. Tick the ones we have already completed. Ensure finish the tasks within the stipulated time frame. Setting Goals and ObjectivesWorking without goals and targets in an organization would be similar to a situation where the captain of the ship loses his way in the sea. Set targets and make sure they are realistic ones and achievable. Setting Deadlines Set deadlines for strive hard to complete tasks ahead of the deadlines. Learn to take ownership of work. One person who can best set the deadlines is project manager. Use a planner to mark the important dates against the set deadlines. Delegation of Responsibilities Learn to say â€Å"NO† at workplace. Don’t do everything alone.There are other pe ople as well. One should not accept something which he knows is difficult for him. The roles and responsibilities must be delegated as per interest and specialization of employees for them to finish tasks within deadlines. A person who does not have knowledge about something needs more time than someone who knows the work well. Prioritizing Tasks Prioritize the tasks as per their importance and urgency. Know the difference between important and urgent work. Identify which tasks should be done within a day, which all should be done within a month and so on.Tasks which are most important should be done earlier. Spending the right time on right activity Develop the habit of doing the right thing at the right time. Work done at the wrong time is not of much use. Don’t waste a complete day on something which can be done in an hour or so. Also keep some time separate for personal calls or checking updates on Facebook or Twitter. After all human being is not a machine. For Effective Time Management Project Manager Needs To Be: Organized – Avoid keeping stacks of file and heaps of paper at workstation. Throw what all don’t need.Put important documents in folders. Keep the files in their respective drawers with labels on top of each file. It saves time which goes on unnecessary searching. Don’t misuse time – Do not kill time by loitering or gossiping around. Concentrate on work and finish assignments on time. Remember the organization is not paying for playing games on computer or peeping into other’s cubicles. First complete the work and then do whatever feels like doing. Don’t wait till the last moment. Be Focused – One needs to be focused for effective time management.Ten Essential Time Management Strategies for the Project Manager The following are the best time management practices for project managers: 1. Use the right tools and equipment. In project management, a project manager's effectiveness will largely depend on the tools at his or her disposal. Even the most talented project manager will be limited if the right software and equipment are not available. Before taking on a project, project managers should thus assess their needs. Some areas to consider include: communications equipment, project tracking software, and collaboration software. . Get to know your project personnel. Social, economic, and cultural differences can often lead to misunderstanding and mis-communication among project team members, especially in situations where a project manager is working with a multi-national project team, and these misunderstandings can be a significant draw on project time. To counteract this affect, project managers should be familiar with the social, economic, and cultural differences of the project team members, and then ensure that these differences are taken into account within project communications. . The 20/80 rule. One of the guiding rules in the management of a project is the P areto Principle which states that roughly 80% of the outputs will be generated by only 20% of the inputs. In other words, a few elements create the most impact. Project managers can capitalize on this principle with the use of a Pareto Chart, a vertical bar graph that identifies in rank order the most important elements or factors in a project, so that attention can be directed to the things that matter the most. 4. The fudge factor.When creating the project budget and setting the project schedule, experienced project managers will always include a cushion in their estimates. These over-estimates of time and money are meant to compensate for any small, unexpected problems that may come up throughout the course of the project, and will ultimately help the project to stay on course. 5. Develop a solid risk management strategy. In addition to budgeting for unexpected draws on time and money, project managers need to have a solid risk management strategy in place so that a project recov ery plan can be quickly implemented if problems arise. 6.Effectively delegate tasks. One of the biggest pitfalls in project management is insufficient delegation of responsibilities. Project managers in particular must be available to oversee the various elements of the project and make key decisions. When they are being bogged down by tasks that can be done by others, then it compromises their ability to manage. 7. Conduct productive team meetings. When project personnel are brought together, it is vital that there be a clear and focused agenda to the meeting. Otherwise, the time of the project manager as well as all those attending the meeting will be compromised.Experienced project managers are adept at determining which information must be discussed in a face-to-face meeting and which information can be disseminated via other mediums. 8. Effective communication system for communication. It almost goes without saying that a project will never run smoothly if the right information does not reach the right people at the right time. A system for effective communication of project information among project personnel as well as project clients and senior executives is a must.Not only must the project manager ensure that he or she is presenting information in a clear, logical, and understandable way, but also that the right tools are in place, such as file- sharing programs, networks, and collaboration tools. 9. Daily personal to-do list. A simple, yet highly effective time management technique for the project manager is the daily creation of a personal to-do list. Having such a list on hand will help the project manager stay on track and not get caught up in the project's myriad details. 10. Stay focused on the big picture.As the old saying goes: don't sweat the small stuff, that's the job of the various project personnel hired to bring the project to completion. Putting undue attention on relatively insignificant aspects of the project can also quickly bring th e project off schedule. Experienced project managers know where they can â€Å"let go† versus knowing which things demand their attention. By following the time management strategies mentioned above, the project manager can help to ensure that all the elements of the project are indeed brought together in a harmonious path towards project completion.Time Management Tips for Project Managers Summary Time management is a basic skill for project managers. If project manager manage own time, how can project manager expect to manage the teams? Ask each day what project manager did to move the project forward. Plan the next day, what will project manager do to ensure the project continues along the straight and narrow. Plan the time, manage the resources with a light touch and communicate effectively. With a little time management, project success should come easier. Cost Management The following are the costs associated with the projects. Direct costsAny costs that are directly at tributable to the work on the project. These can include the salaries paid to the resources, the billing rate of the resources and costs of the software and hardware that are used for building the website Indirect Costs These costs are spread out against many projects and cannot be linked to one project alone. These costs include those incurred in shared services like cost of office space, taxes paid by the organization and other services like secretarial and janitorial staff Variable Costs Costs that change in proportion to the amount of time and material that are spent on produced in the project.Fixed Costs Costs that do not change with the timeline or progress of the project. A cost be either Fixed or Variable; Direct or Indirect The overhead costs for this project are the office setup and shared services. While the costs incurred in setting up the office space can be general overhead cost as it is a one-time cost and is borne by all the projects in the organization. The project overhead costs are the costs incurred in the shared services such as secretarial staff and other services provide to the project and can be directly billable as such.Time phased budget A time phased budget would include the costs incurred at each interval or milestone of the project. The milestones for this project would be requirements, design, coding, testing and implementation. The budget for the same would be the costs at each stage of the project. The budget at completion or BAC should have all the components of the costs included like direct and indirect costs, fixed and variable costs etc along with the cost at each phase or milestone of the project.The cost variance should be measured using Earned Value technique and this tool allows the manager to assess the completion of the project at each milestone according to the cost incurred and the value accrued till then. Variance between these two measures gives an accurate estimate of the health of the project. Cumulative costs T he cumulative costs of the project are the ones that are incurred up to a specific phase or milestone of the project. It can be measured by using a Cost Performance Index or CPI which measures the ratio of the Earned value with regards to the Actual cost incurred on the project.As outlined above, all the costs that accumulate up to a particular phase can be called the cumulative costs of the project. Cost control The cost management plan should include the plan for controlling the costs of the project. There should be a measurement of the costs involved and their variances tracked, if any. Any variance to the budget must be controlled by the controlling the impact of the cost changes. Further, cost control can be done in the area of overhead costs and general and administrative expenses. Estimating Project CostsThe Wideman Comparative Glossary of Common Project Management Terms describes estimating cost as â€Å"The process of forecasting a future result in terms of cost, based upo n information available at the time. † In his book ‘How to be a Better Project Manager', Trevor L Young defines estimating as â€Å"A decision about how much time and resource are required to carry out a piece of work to acceptable standards of performance. † Many techniques, books and software packages exist to help with estimating project costs. A few simple rules will also help ensure you create an accurate and realistic estimate. Assume resources will only be productive for 80 percent of their time. ? Resources working on multiple projects take longer to complete tasks because of time lost switching between them. ? People are generally optimistic and often underestimate how long tasks will take. ? Make use of other project manager experiences. ? Get an expert view. ? Include management time in any estimate. ? Always build in contingency for problem solving, meetings and other unexpected events. ? Cost each task in the Work Breakdown Structure to arrive at a to tal, rather than trying to cost the project as a whole. Agree a tolerance with the customer for additional work that is not yet defined. ? Communicate any assumptions, exclusions or constraints project manager have to the customer. ? Provide regular budget statements to the customer, copying the team, so they are always aware of the current position. ? Much data exists about the length of time particular items of work take, especially in the construction industry. A useful database of production rates can be found at Planning Planet Common Mistakes ? These are some of the common mistakes that can lead to inaccurate estimates. Not understanding what is involved to complete an item of work. ? Starting with an amount of money and making the project cost fit it. ? Assigning resources at more than 80 percent utilization. ? Failing to build in contingency. ? Failing to adjust the estimate following changes in scope. ? Dividing tasks between more than one resource. ? Providing estimates un der pressure in project meetings. ? Giving single-data-point estimates rather than range estimates. Three Point Estimating Three point estimating is a technique that helps project managers produce better estimates.Rather than a ballpark estimate, project managers can use three point estimating to gain a greater degree of control over how the end value is calculated. The end value is the weighted average of three estimates. To do three point estimating for a particular task or activity, ask the resource for their best-case, most likely and worst case estimates. Add the best-case estimate to four times the most likely, then the worst case and divide by six. This gives you your estimate (E value) which is a slightly more balanced view of how long the task or activity is likely to take.The formula is expressed as: E = (B + 4 M + W)/6 B = best-case (1/6) M = most likely (4/6) W = worst case (1/6) `Monte Carlo Simulation in MS Excel The Monte Carlo method of estimating project cost is bas ed on the generation of multiple trials to determine the expected value of a random variable. There are several commercial packages that run Monte Carlo simulation; however a basic spreadsheet such as Microsoft Excel can be used to run a simulation. Risk Management Literally speaking,  risk management is the process of minimizing or mitigating the risk.It starts with the identification and evaluation of risk followed by optimal use of resources to monitor and minimize the same. Risk generally results from uncertainty. In organizations this risk can come from uncertainty in the market place (demand, supply and Stock market), failure of projects, accidents, natural disasters etc. There are different tools to deal with the same depending upon the kind of risk. Ideally in risk management, a risk prioritization process is followed in which those risks that pose the threat of great loss and have great probability of occurrence are dealt with first. Refer to table below: IMPACT |ACTIONS | |SIGNIFICANT |Considerable Management Required |Must Manage and Monitor Risks |Extensive Management essential | |MODERATE |Risk are bearable to certain extent |Management effort worthwhile |Management effort required | |MINOR |Accept Risks |Accept but monitor Risks |Manage and Monitor Risks | |   |LOW |MEDIUM |HIGH | | |LIKELIHOOD | The above chart can be used to strategize in various situations. The two factors that govern the action required are the probability of occurrence and the impact of the risk.For example a condition where the impact is minor and the probability of occurrence is low, it is better to accept the risk without any interventions. A condition where the likelihood is high and the impact is significant, extensive management is required. This is how a certain priority can be established in dealing with the risk. Apart from this, typically most of the organizations follow a risk management cycle. Refer diagram below: [pic] According to this cycle there are four steps in the process of risk management. The first step is the assessment of risk, followed by evaluation and management of the same. The last step is measuring the impact.Risk identification can start at the base or the surface level, in the former case the source of problems is identified. We now have two things to deal with the source and the problem. Risk Source:  The source can be either internal or external to the system. External sources are beyond control whereas internal sources can be controlled to a certain extent. For example, the amount of rainfall, weather over an airport etc! Problem:  A problem at the surface level could be the threat of accident and casualty at the plant, a fire incident etc. When any or both of the above two are known beforehand, certain steps can be taken to deal with the same.After the risk has been identified then it must be assessed on the potential of criticality. Here we arrive upon risk prioritization. In generic terms ‘likelihood of occurrence ? impact’ is equal to risk. This is followed by development of a risk management plan and implementation of the same. It comprises of the effective security controls and control mechanisms for mitigation of risk. A more challenging risk to organizational effectiveness is the risk that is present but cannot be identified. For example a perpetual inefficiency in the production process accumulates over a certain period of time and translates into operational risk. The Principles of Risk ManagementEvery project manager and business leader needs to be aware of the practices and principles of effective risk management. Understanding how to identify and treat risks to an organization, a programmed or a project can save unnecessary difficulties later on, and will prepare managers and team members for any unavoidable incidences or issues. The M_o_R (Management of Risk) framework identifies twelve principles, which are intended â€Å"not to be prescriptive but provide s upportive guidance to enable organizations to develop their own policies, processes strategies and plan. Organizational Context A fundamental principle of all generic management methods, including PRINCE2 and MSP as well as M_o_R, is that all organizations are different.Project managers, programmed managers and risk managers need to consider the specific context of the organization in order to ensure thorough identification of risks and appropriate risk treatment procedures. The term ‘organizational context' encompasses the political, economic, social, technological, legal and environmental backdrop of an organization. Stakeholder Involvement It is easy for a management team to become internalized and forget that stakeholders are also key participants in everyday business procedures, short-term projects and business-wide change programmed. Understanding the roles of individual stakeholders and managing stakeholder involvement is crucial to successful.Stakeholders should, as fa r as is appropriate, be made aware of risks to a project or programmed. Within the context and stakeholder involvement, â€Å"appropriate† concerns: the identity and role of the stakeholder, the level of influence that the stakeholder has over and outside of the organization, the level of investment that the stakeholder has in the organization, and the type, probability and potential impact of the risk. Organizational Objectives Risks exist only in relation to the activities and objectives of an organization. Rain is a negative risk for a picnic, a positive risk for drought-ridden farmland and a non-risk for the occupants of a submarine.It is imperative that the individual responsible for risk management (whether that is the business leader, the project/programmed manager or a specialist risk manager) understands the objectives of the organization, in order to ensure a tailored approach. M_o_R Managing of Risk Approach The processes, policies, strategies and plans within the M_o_R framework provide generic guidelines and templates within a particular organization. These guidelines are based on the experience and research of professional risk managers from a wide range of organizations and management backgrounds. Following best practices ensures that individuals involved in managing the risks associated with an organization’s activity are able to learn from the mistakes, experiments and lessons of others. ReportingAccurately and clearly representing data, and the transmission of this data to the appropriate staff members, managers and stakeholders, is crucial to successful risk management. The M_o_R methodology provides standard templates and tested structures for managing the frequency, content and participants of risk communication. Roles and Responsibilities Fundamental to risk management best practice is the clear definition of risk management roles and responsibilities. Individual functions and accountability must be transparent, both within and outside an organization. This is important both in terms of organizational governance, and to ensure that all the necessary responsibilities are covered by appropriate individuals. Support StructureA support structure is the provision within an organization of standardized guidelines, information, training and funding for individuals managing risks that may arise in any specific area or project. This can include a centralized risk management team, a standard risk management approach and best-practice guidelines for reporting and reviewing organizational risks. Early Warning Indicators Risk identification is an essential first step for removing or alleviating risks. In some cases, however, it is not possible to remove risks in advance. Early warning indicators are pre-defined and quantified triggers that alert individuals responsible for risk management that an identified risk is imminent.This enables the most thorough and prepared approach to handling the situation. Review Cycle Related to the need for early warning indicators is the review cycle. This establishes the regular review of identified risks and ensures that risk managers remain sensitive to new risks, and to the effectiveness of current policies. Overcoming Barriers to M_o_R Any successful strategy requires thoughtful consideration of possible barriers to implementation. Common issues include: ? Established roles, responsibilities, accountabilities and ownership. ? An appropriate budget for embedding approach and carrying out activities. ? Adequate and accessible training, tools and techniques. Risk management orientation, induction and training processes. ? Regular assessment of M_o_R approach (including all of the above issues. Supportive Culture Risk management underpins many different areas and aspects of an organization’s activity. A supportive culture is essential for ensuring that everybody with risk management responsibilities feels confident rising, discussing and managing risks . A supportive risk management culture will also include evaluation and reward of risk management competencies for the appropriate individuals. Continual Improvement In an evolving organization, nothing stands still. An effective risk management policy includes the capacity for re-evaluation and improvement.At a practical level, this will require the nomination of an individual or a group of individuals to the responsibility of ensuring that risk management policies and procedures are up-to-date, as well as the establishment of regular review cycles of the organization’s risk management approach. Quality Management Procurement and Quality Process The art of project management calls for an increased vigil on quality and related processes. The project manager is expected to be aware of the best practices that are used for the project and is supposed to make sure that he or she adapts them to the use of project management. One area of concern nowadays is the absence of processes in procurement and staffing. These are areas of concern not only to the project manager but also to the organizations.There is a need to balance the requirements of the fast procurement and staffing cycle with that of proper processes to be followed. There has been much debate in many organizations about the lack of quality in recruitment and procurement. These twin areas of quality and procurement have the aspect of ruining the chances of a successful project and hence the project manager has a responsibility to steer the course and ensure that quality does not suffer. There are several areas of project management that need quality control and there are several benchmarks of quality that can be used to meet these standards. For instance, many organizations use Six Sigma and SEI CMM level processes to guide them in the art of quality and meeting quality specifications.These are just one instance of how the quality framework is used to differentiate between the processes that are er ror free and those that need revision and rework. Sampling method prescribed by Kaizen, Six Sigma etc can be used to improve the quality of the processes that are employed by the organizations. Kaizen, in particular relates to continuous improvement, a theme that would find resonance in the uber-competitive world of today. All organizations strive for quality and to find the edge that would differentiate those from others and thus these initiatives are the ones that the project manager must look forward to and implement them diligently in the workplace.To address the issues arising out of poor procurement and staffing practices, the project manager has to be in constant touch with one important stakeholder i. e. , the procurement and staffing teams and this is where the project manager is expected to show their level of competence by managing the procurement and staffing cycle. Quality Management Vs Quality Control Quality is defined as the degree to which the project meets the requ irements (PMBOK, 2009). The operative word here is meeting the requirements and hence anything that is done that is not conforming to the requirements is said to be deviating from the norm of quality. In the subsequent paragraphs, I look at the distinction between quality management and the processes of quality control.Quality management is the practice of drawing up plans that determine the standards that need to apply to the project, determining who would be involved in managing quality and their specific duties, meetings to determine if the project is conforming to the quality specifications laid out in the quality management plan and laying out the metrics that are used to measure quality. As defined by the PMBOK, Project Quality Management is the comprehensive plan that includes all the components of the quality planning process (PMBOK, 2009). Quality control, on the other hand, is the set of processes that measure the metrics of quality by assessing the specific project result s against standards.Quality control processes are done during project monitoring and controlling functions whereas quality management is done during the initiating and planning phase (PMBOK, 2009). Hence, quality control is the subset of quality management and is the final phase of the project management cycle. Quality management is all encompassing and consists of laying down standards against which the project quality metrics are defined and need to be measured against. Quality management takes into account the lower level details of how the output of the project is to be tracked and measured. Quality control is the process of ensuring that the quality metrics are met.Hence, while quality management is the process of planning and managing the requirements of the project from the perspective of quality, quality control is the process of measuring the level of output and the quality of the output and typically consists of measuring the output against the quality metrics that were de cided upon in the quality management plan. The reason that quality management and quality control are used interchangeably is due to the perception that quality control encompasses the planning aspect as well. This is certainly true in organizations that do not have a separate quality department and quality planning and quality control is the domain of the project management processes. In organizations that have separate quality departments and where there is a well thought out quality plan, quality management and quality control are separate and are handled by different people.In conclusion, quality management typically produces as its deliverables a comprehensive quality management plan that includes the quality control aspect of it. Quality control in this case is handled by a different set of people who do the tracking and measuring of metrics in a dedicated manner. Typically, the process of quality management includes the representatives from the quality department and the qual ity control processes are the reverse with the quality department handling the tracking of metrics and reporting to the project management team. Quality control is an independent audit of the quality of deliverables and is necessary for the sign off of the project. Deming's 14 Points and Quality Project ManagerQuality is misunderstood by many who think of it only as it relates to the final deliverable, but a quality product is itself achieved only through quality processes focused on efficiency, innovation, and continual improvement, and these require a quality management culture not only in our projects, but within our organizations. In chapter two of his 1986 book, Out of the Crisis, Edward Deming presented 14 principles that he believed could make industry more competitive by increasing quality. Organizational improvements can begin with anyone. While it's true that our professional domain as project managers is bounded by the project life cycle, our influence is often much great er than that, and quality management is one of those areas where skilled project managers are best suited to be instrumental change agents – first in the culture of their projects, and second, in the culture of their departments and organizations.As project managers, if we follow Deming's principles, we can create project environments where quality thrives, not only benefiting our customers and projects, but perhaps serving as a tipping point for effecting a quality management change within our organizations. 1. Create Constancy of Purpose towards Improvement Deming is telling management to stop reacting and plan better for the long-term. For project managers: What has been traditionally thought of as long-term planning is no longer achievable. Business changes too rapidly, and detailed, up-front plans take too long to produce and are always outdated by the time they're committed to paper.Yet projects must have a plan that establishes activities, milestones, and priorities, s o what we should strive for in our projects is thorough planning based on iterative, rolling-wave, or Agile approaches. Thorough planning uses detailed planning for the short-term with a longer-term view emphasizing constant reviews, re-planning, and risk management, especially for opportunities that can be exploited. This results in a project plan that can adapt quickly to abrupt business and deliverable changes without throwing the project into chaos. 2. Adopt the new Philosophy Deming is telling management to stop being hypocritical, awaken itself to the challenge, and become leaders.For project managers: People will always see through anyone who says one thing, but whose actions are entirely different. Lasting, energizing change starts first with us, and only then will it spread outward and excite others into action. As managers, our core values can't just be expressed through our words, but they must be evident in all our actions with our teams and coworkers. It takes time, but as our message and attitude spread to an ever-broadening base of people, a domino effect takes place and the members themselves become believers and evangelists in quality management themselves. 3. Cease Dependency on Inspection Deming is reminding management that the need for inspection will decrease if quality problems are prevented in the first place.For project managers: We all know that prevention is better than inspection, so our project management and execution processes need continual improvement methods built into them to reduce quality problems. But inspection goes beyond its purely quality connotations. Are we propagating a management style based on inspection? If our team has a tendency to run everything first past us for approval then we may be, and that isn't good for us, the team, or the project. Our responsibility as a project manager isn't to be the funnel through which everyone seeks approval. If that's what is happening then the project will stagnate and become i nflexible.Instead, let's make sure we create a project culture where the team has the skills, information, and experience it needs to make every-day, rapid decisions on its own. 4. End the Practice of Awarding Business on the Basis of Price Tags Deming's purpose behind this point was to eliminate variations in the manufacturing process by having too many suppliers of component goods. For project managers: Price alone should rarely be the determining factor because most procurement needs go beyond simple commodities. When a project is likely to involve frequent changes, we need vendors who can adapt or offer their own new ideas for responding to those changes, and that isn't likely to happen when cut-rate suppliers are chosen.This principle also holds true in our role as the vendor for internal or external customers. We are not just collectors of requirements – we need to be engaged with the customer and stakeholders, understanding their business objectives in order for us to provide the deliverable that best meets their changing needs. 5. Improve Constantly and Forever Deming is reminding industry leaders that they have to constantly strive to reduce variation, which leads to quality problems. For project managers: Continuous improvement is a core philosophy of the PMBOK, but it isn't like a switch that gets turned on or off. It's a mindset that is nurtured by the right environment.Members of the team need skills, information, and knowledge beyond their core subjects of expertise, and we should encourage experimentation and reward mistakes made in the search for innovation, which means we need to eliminate blame and ingrain the lessons-learned process in every part of the project. Large-scale improvements and innovative approaches often come from â€Å"amateurs† and not specialists because amateurs are driven by their interest in the subject and less wedded to preconceived notions and ideas. Chris Anderson, author of The Long Tail, says, â€Å"I 'll take a passionate amateur over a bored professional any day. † 6. Institute Training on the Job On-the-job training increases efficiency and results in job outputs with fewer errors. For project managers: Continuous improvement extends beyond just processes.It applies to the hard and soft skills, experiences, and knowledge of the entire project team. Professional development, coaching, and mentoring should be encouraged, acknowledged, and rewarded. Training doesn't have to be expensive, and it doesn't have to be formalised. Some of the best training experiences involve group-led efforts that also serve as team building exercises, such as Webinars, vendor demonstrations, and specific discussions on best practices. 7. Institute Leadership Deming wants management to be leaders not merely supervisors. For project managers: The problem on most projects is not a lack of management but a lack of leadership.Leadership is more about people skills than about project management skill s. Few projects have sponsors that view themselves as the leader on the project, and if the leadership charge is not picked up by the project manager then the project is not likely to be successful. A leader translates the project's vision into actions that excite, inspire, and motivate the project team, and he or she is able to instil a perception that the project isn't just creating a deliverable; it's accomplishing something phenomenal for the customer. 8. Drive out Fear Deming tells us that management by fear or punishment is detrimental because it inhibits questions and ideas from the workforce.For project managers: Fear stifles two cornerstones of quality – innovation and continual improvement. A fearful team isn't going to generate new ideas and it's going to hide its mistakes, leading to a poor lessons learned process. Deming's point goes beyond what most of us associate with fear. Fear is also that little voice all of us hear that suppresses us from speaking up or sh aring ideas – fear of failing, fear of sounding silly, fear of making a mistake, fear of missing a deadline, fear of stepping on another's toes, and so on. Yet these fears are just as detrimental to quality as fear of punishment. It's a lack of trust between team members and in the project's leadership that drives these fears.If we improve trust, team members will be more willing to share their ideas and question existing processes. 9. Break Down Barriers Between Staff Areas Deming wants everyone to realise that each person is a customer of someone and that everybody is a supplier to somebody. For project managers: Silos and a rigid hierarchy are dangerous not only to the project, but to the organisation. Innovation and continual improvement come about by somebody seeing a connection that is not inherently obvious, and connections can't be discovered when one is stuck behind artificial barriers. We can help break those barriers by exposing people to diverse situations outside their normal environment and comfort zones.Though there is a short-term productivity loss when people work outside their specialty, there is a longer-term gain for the project and organisation. This strategy helps build a larger pool of â€Å"generalists† in many subjects, and new experiences are a powerful motivator for many people. This approach also improves opportunities for innovative approaches and is a risk management strategy should key personnel leave the project. 10. Eliminate Slogans, Exhortations, and Targets for the Work Force Slogans imply the problem is with the employees, but the real problem is with the process. For project managers: The first point we have to accept is that we are responsible for problems within the project, whatever those issues might be.It isn't the team's fault, the customer's fault, or the organisation's fault – it's our fault. The root causes of most project problems are deficiencies in communication, scope, requirements, activi ty definitions, project planning and re-planning, risk management, and stakeholder involvement. All of these are within our professional domain even if we aren't the ones personally performing them. It's our responsibility to make sure the project processes are performed effectively to a level appropriate for the project. 11. Eliminate Management by Objectives Setting production targets only encourages people to meet those targets through whatever means necessary, which causes poor quality.For project managers: On the surface this principle probably sounds like heresy to most of us – how can a project be managed if targets aren't set? Well, it can't, but that wasn't Deming's point. He's talking about short-sighted versus thorough planning. Setting targets in response to a problem without first understanding and addressing the root causes in the processes will only lead to more quality problems. Milestones are the predominant targets for projects, and they need to be challengi ng to motivate the team, but they have to be achievable and flexible. Yet flexibility is one of the most common scheduling failures a project manager makes, especially on projects that are very iterative and involve rolling wave planning.As these projects progress, milestones have to be continually reassessed, and this often means that the original dates get pushed. Too many of us perceive these readjustments as â€Å"missing our target† because we're too married to dates that were only best-guesses or top-down estimates set early in project planning. We also should be careful to present milestone dates to stakeholders as estimates and help them understand the iterative nature of these kinds of projects – as the project is better understood and the work needed becomes clearer, milestone dates may change. 12. Remove Barriers to Pride of Workmanship Deming tells us that nobody feels good about producing shoddy work.When management creates an environment that fosters poor quality, employees are frustrated. For project managers: Recognising the team and individuals for their contributions and achievements helps instil pride of workmanship. Everyone on the project team should feel that his or her work is recognised and valuable to the project's success. Sincere appreciation is one of the easiest and cheapest yet most effective motivating agents we can use. Even â€Å"failures† and mistakes are achievements as long as there were valuable lessons learned. 13. Institute Education and Self-Improvement Deming wants everyone, managers and the workforce, to pursue training, education, and self-improvement.For project managers: Ongoing professional development is expected of certified project managers, but we should also expect and encourage it among our team and coworkers. Nearly every profession has its own certification and continuing education requirements, and our team members will appreciate it if we have a general understanding of their professi on's requirements, recognise them for certification efforts, and help them with opportunities for meeting those requirements. 14. The Transformation is Everyone's Job Deming says that everyone is involved in the fixing the processes. For project managers: This one is easy if we've done everything else right because all the other principles will result in quality management culture where everyone is involved in continual improvement and innovation.Having experienced first-hand a quality management experience, the people on our team will in turn spread those ideas to other project teams. Communications Management Having good communication skills is one of the key abilities of a project manager. However, this fact is frequently overlooked when choosing the ideal candidate for that position. Moreover, it is not emphasized as much as it should in most project management training programs. Thus, many times we find project managers with excellent management and technical skills but which a re really not-that-good communicators. Why is it so important? First of all, because a good leader should be a great communicator in order to lead and motivate his or her team, as we have discussed before.This is something that not only applies to the members of the team but to all the stakeholders of the project. A project manager has to be aware that all of them have different profiles and interests, and that it requires from him or her great ability to adapt the message to each one. Communication principles Good communication should be based on accuracy, clarity, transparency and interaction. Accuracy has to do with the detail and scope of the information that is being transmitted. The project manager must be able to provide the information that is needed for everyone within and outside the team. Sometimes excessively detailed information may divert attention from the main message and can lead the interlocutor to confusion.Mostly, the communication with the team should focus on t he objectives, and the plan to take to achieve them. While, for example, information that is provided to clients will focus on the requirements of the project and its evolution. To ensure information clarity, the language is a crucial thing and the project manager must perfectly handle all its variants. Generally, it will be common to use a more technical and specific language within the team, and a more formal style if the message is addressed to a client or a company directive. Transparency has a direct impact on the project manager’s credibility. A project manager’s honesty should be beyond doubt, and so, he or she has to provide continuous communication about the problems that arise.The last principle, but not a less important one is interaction. Communication cannot be unidirectional. In all situations, with any type of interlocutor, the project manager must be open to dialogue. He or she has to know how to both ask and listen in order to get accurate information that can be relevant in later decisions. It is essential to have continuous communication with all parties involved in the project. To help project manager with this, Doolphy, as an online project management tool, helps project manager to centralize all project information and adjust the access to each kind of user. Top Five Communication Skills for Project Managers 1.Active Listening In first place is project manager ability to listen to and understand others. Listening to the words and the meaning behind their words, not interrupting or letting our minds wander, asking questions to check understanding, observing non-verbal signals. According to Indian project manager Nirav Patel CAPM: â€Å"The benefits include getting people to open up and due to that lots of misunderstandings and conflicts can be resolved. † 2. Building Relationships based on Trust and Respect Trust and respect are the cornerstones of personal relationships. They are earned not a right and come from exper ience of our honesty, integrity and expertise.Among the characteristics people used to determine project manager credibility are truthfulness, openness, willingness to share ideas and information freely, consistency, reliability, loyalty, capabilities and competence. â€Å"Trust encourages people to propose ideas, suggest ways to enhance work, speak of their concerns and give advice,† says Dubai-based Kareem Shaker PMP. 3. Setting Clear Priorities In third spot is a project manager's ability to convey the strategy for their team – by setting goals, planning and prioritizing. This is the what, who, when, where, why and how of the project. Team members should understand both the big picture and the lower level technical priorities. â€Å"Essentially this is what a project manager does.If you can't do it you won't get everybody working on the same page,† says Australian Paul Ramussen. 4. Enabling Collaboration In a collaborative environment team members support and encourage each other rather than focusing solely on their own tasks and responsibilities. They are willing to co-operate and share information, ideas and assets to help each other. The result can be greater than the sum of its parts. â€Å"When we collaborate we get the 1Ãâ€"1=3 effect. Things happen that might not have if people had remained focused on their own work,† says American Adam Michaelson PMP. 5. Conveying the Organisation's Vision Contract In Project Management Project Contract TypesExplaining the bigger picture helps team members understand where the project fits within the overall aims of your business unit and organization. Senior executives are focused on the triple bottom line – finances, environment, reputation – this is where they expect your project to make a difference. American Jhaymee Wilson PMP says: â€Å"As project managers if we can't convey the link between our project and the organization how can we show we are delivering value? à ¢â‚¬  This article is based on research among project managers from around the world and was originally published as Five Essential Rules for Project Leaders on the PMI Career Central website. Introduction:In the world of business, contracts are used for establishing business deals and partnerships. The parties involved in the business engagement decide the type of the contract. Usually the type of the contract used for the business engagement varies depending on the type of the work and the nature of the industry. The contract is simply an elaborated agreement between two or more parties. One or more parties may provide products or services in return to something provided by other parties (client). The contract type is the key relationship between the parties engaged in the business and the contract type determines the project risk. Example most widely used contract types:Fixed Price (Lump Sum) This is the simplest type of all contracts. The terms are quite straightforward and eas y to understand. To put in simple, the service provider agrees to provide a defined service for a specific period of time and the client agrees to pay a fixed amount of money for the service. This contract type may define various milestones for the deliveries as well as KPIs (Key Performance Indicators). In addition, the contractor may have an acceptance criteria defined for the milestones and the final delivery. The main advantage of this type of contract is that the contractor knows the total project cost before the project commences.Unit Price In this model, the project is divided into units and the charge for each unit is defined. This contract type can be introduced as one of the more flexible methods compared to fixed price contract. Usually the owner (contractor/client) of the project decides on the estimates and asks the bidders to bid of each element of the project. After bidding, depending on the bid amounts and the qualifications of bidders, the entire project may be give n to the same services provider or different units may be allocated to different services providers. This is a good approach when different project units require different expertise to complete. Cost PlusIn this contract model, the services provider is reimbursed for their machinery, labour, and other costs, in addition to contractor paying an agreed fee to the services provider In this method, the services provider should offer a detailed schedule and the resource allocation for the project. Apart from that, all the costs should be properly listed and should be reported to the contractor periodically. The payments maybe paid by the contractor at a certain frequency (such as monthly, quarterly) or by the end of milestones. Incentive Incentive contracts are usually used when there is some level of uncertainty in the project cost. Although there are nearly-accurate estimations, the technological challenges may impact on the overall resources as well as the effort.This type of contract s is common for the projects involving pilot programs or the project that harness new technologies. There are three cost factors in an Incentive contract; target price, target profit, and the maximum cost. The main mechanism of Incentive contract is to divide any target price overrun between the client and the services provider in order to minimize the business risks for both parties. Retainer (Time and Material – T&M) This is one of the most beautiful engagements that can get into by two or more parties. This engagement type is the most risk-free type where the time and material used for the project are priced. The contractor only requires knowing the time and material for the project in order to make the payments.This type of contracts has short delivery cycles and for each cycle separate estimates are sent of the contractor. Once the contractor signs off the estimate and Statement of Work (SOW), the services provider can start work. Unlike most of the other contract types, retainer contracts are mostly used for long-term business engagements. Percentage of Construction Fee This type of contracts is used for engineering projects. Based on the resources and material required, the cost for the construction is estimated. Then, the client contracts a service provider and pays a percentage of the cost of the project as the fee for the services provider. As an example, take the scenario of constructing a house. Assume that the estimate comes up to $230,000.When this project is contracted to a services provider, the client may agree to pay 30% of the total cost as the construction fee, which comes up to $69,000. Conclusion Selecting the contract type is the most crucial step of establishing a business agreement with another party. This step determines the possible engagement risks. Therefore, companies should get into contracts where there is a minimum risk for their business. It is always a good idea to engage in fixed bids (fixed priced) whenever the proje ct is short-termed and predictable. If the project nature is exploratory, it is always best to adopt retainer or cost plus contract types. Contract Project Management ServicesContracting a project management professional to manage a project offers advantages in leadership, experience and cost savings. Yet